In this lecture, Professor Freedman discusses the Carolingian Renaissance, the revival of learning sponsored by Charlemagne and his successors. The period before the Carolingians saw a decline in learning, evidenced in part by the loss of lay literacy. As literacy became the purview of clerics, monasteries set up scriptoria in order to copy manuscripts on a larger scale. In this context, the Carolingians sponsored a revival of learning both for the sake of bringing educated people into the government and in order to encourage the piety of the people.

In this lecture, Professor Freedman discusses the Carolingian dynasty from its origins through its culmination in the figure of Charlemagne. The Carolingians sought to overthrow the much weakened Merovingian dynasty by establishing their political legitimacy on three bases: war leadership, Christian rule, and the legacy of Rome.  Charlemagne’s grandfather Charles Martel won a major victory over the Muslims in 733 at the Battle of Poitiers.

In this lecture, Professor Freedman surveys major trends in Byzantine history from the sixth to eleventh century, dividing the era into four periods.   In the sixth century, under Justinian’s rule, the Byzantine Empire experienced a period of expansion (532-565).  However, the Empire was unable to hold on to Justinian’s hard won territories and so contracted for over a century of crisis that threatened its survival (565-717).  In the next period, (717-843), the Byzantine army was reorganized and the Empire was able to regain some lost territory.  At

In the first half of this lecture, Professor Freedman continues the previous lecture’s discussion of the Abbasids. He highlights their ability to assimilate other cultures, before turning to their decline in the tenth century. In the second half of the lecture, Professor Freedman considers the seventh century, the crucial turning point in the history of early medieval Europe.

In this lecture, Professor Freedman discusses the Abbasid dynasty, which ruled the Islamic Caliphate beginning in 750. The Abbasids moved the capitol of the Caliphate to the newly-built city of Baghdad and created a state characterized by a strong administration and well-organized tax system. The state sponsored a cultural flowering, based in part on the translation of classical Greek and Roman texts. Professor Freedman ends the lecture by focusing on developments in mathematics and astronomy.

In this lecture, Professor Freedman discusses the Islamic conquests.  Although they were in some sense religiously motivated, Arab did not attempt to forcibly convert or eradicate Jews, Christians, or other non-Muslims.  The conquests began as raids, but quickly escalated when the invaders discovered that Byzantium and Persia were too weak to withstand their assault. In a relatively short period of time, the Arabs were able to conquer an area stretching from Spain to India.  Against this background of successful conquests, Islam began to experience deep internal divisions.

In this lecture, Professor Freedman introduces Islam. He begins with a discussion of its geographical context: the dry desert lands of the Arabian peninsula. The Bedouins, or nomadic Arabs of the region, lived in a tribal society somewhat similar to the Germanic tribes discussed earlier in the course.  Their raids against the Byzantine and the Persian Empire, for lack of strong opposition, would lead to the Arab conquests. The second half of the lecture focuses on the life of Mohammed (570/580 – 632) and the early years of Islam.

The material covered throughout the course is reviewed. Properties of air and water are discussed. Hydrostatic balance is discussed as related to the atmosphere, ocean and solid earth. Geostrophic balance is a force balance between the Coriolis force and the pressure gradient force, and applies to winds in the atmosphere as well as currents in the ocean. Several examples of equilibrium states are reviewed. Heat and mass are transported by fluid motion in the earth system through winds, ocean currents and rivers.

Renewable energy sources are discussed. These include wind energy, solar energy, biomass energy and geothermal energy. Energy from wind is acquired through the use of large wind turbines. These turbines ideally need to be located in areas where there is strong wind and low atmospheric turbulence. Solar power is collected using both photovoltaic solar cells and concentrated solar power. Energy from biomass can be produced in two ways: burning biomass to generate electricity or fermentation to produce fuel ethanol.

The various types of resources currently used for energy production are discussed. Energy is primarily used for heating, transportation, and generating electricity. Coal is burned largely to produce electricity and is a major contributor to air pollution with coal power plants emitting carbon dioxides and nitrous oxides. Another major resource used for energy is oil. It is projected that each country either has reached or will reach a peak oil use, after which oil use will decrease.