WEBVTT 00:01.250 --> 00:02.730 Prof: Good morning. 00:02.730 --> 00:07.490 Well I think it is high time that you start thinking about 00:07.485 --> 00:09.065 your final paper. 00:09.070 --> 00:15.500 Let me just one more time tell you what my expectation is. 00:15.497 --> 00:16.397 Right? 00:16.400 --> 00:19.240 There are three major blocks in the course. 00:19.240 --> 00:23.010 For each of the blocks there is a test. 00:23.010 --> 00:26.500 You have done two; one more will be done, 00:26.495 --> 00:28.355 last week of classes. 00:28.360 --> 00:35.200 I mean, the idea of the paper is that you do a little more 00:35.200 --> 00:37.000 ambitious work. 00:37.000 --> 00:38.080 Right? 00:38.080 --> 00:42.810 You link two of the blocks to each other. 00:42.810 --> 00:48.000 So you compare Hobbes' theory of human nature with Durkheim's 00:48.000 --> 00:51.980 theory of human nature, or Hobbes, Rousseau and 00:51.979 --> 00:55.179 Durkheim, or something like this. 00:55.180 --> 01:01.010 Or you look at the question of power in Hobbes, 01:01.012 --> 01:03.552 Nietzsche and Weber. 01:03.548 --> 01:04.688 Right? 01:04.688 --> 01:07.948 Do two or three authors, as such. 01:07.950 --> 01:16.670 I also highly recommend you that you go what excites you the 01:16.674 --> 01:17.714 most. 01:17.709 --> 01:21.169 You pick a topic what you find exciting. 01:21.170 --> 01:24.750 If there was anything in this course what made you excited, 01:24.748 --> 01:25.668 write about it. 01:25.674 --> 01:26.234 Right? 01:26.230 --> 01:32.190 And you can use earlier essay topics, what you wrote up; 01:32.189 --> 01:33.469 that's no problem. 01:33.470 --> 01:36.940 That will be a new paper anyway--right?--because you have 01:36.941 --> 01:40.601 to link occasionally quite distant authors to each other. 01:40.599 --> 01:44.359 And talk to your discussion section leader, 01:44.364 --> 01:49.394 or send an email--it can be very short--just to make sure 01:49.385 --> 01:52.605 that you are on the right trajectory. 01:52.614 --> 01:53.694 Right? 01:53.690 --> 01:57.590 And probably your discussion section leader will give you 01:57.592 --> 02:00.312 just a two-sentence response to say, 02:00.310 --> 02:01.460 "Yes this seems to be fine." 02:01.459 --> 02:03.739 Or, "No you are taking on too many; 02:03.739 --> 02:05.309 there are two many authors. 02:05.310 --> 02:08.230 Why don't you do only two or three, rather than five, 02:08.229 --> 02:09.969 what you're suggesting?" 02:09.968 --> 02:14.648 Or, "Well you should be a little more ambitious." 02:14.645 --> 02:15.285 Right? 02:15.288 --> 02:18.198 This is the kind of feedback you should expect. 02:18.199 --> 02:23.269 And otherwise--let me also say that one more time--you know us 02:23.274 --> 02:27.024 in this course, we want to make these abstract 02:27.018 --> 02:29.928 theories relevant to your life. 02:29.930 --> 02:32.370 So therefore don't shy away. 02:32.370 --> 02:36.940 If you have opinions, if you can reflect how the 02:36.942 --> 02:39.862 course helped, or did not help, 02:39.860 --> 02:43.750 to understand yourself in society, do so. 02:43.752 --> 02:44.922 Right? 02:44.919 --> 02:50.909 But I think you really should talk to your discussion section 02:50.910 --> 02:56.200 leader, or at least on email, before you leave for the 02:56.202 --> 02:57.502 vacation. 02:57.500 --> 03:03.810 Because I want--when you are tired of turkey, 03:03.810 --> 03:09.240 or you had enough beer and watching football, 03:09.240 --> 03:13.540 and then you want to have fun, then you can start working on 03:13.543 --> 03:14.783 your final paper. 03:14.782 --> 03:15.442 Right? 03:15.438 --> 03:19.808 You don't leave it to the very end--right?--but you can use 03:19.807 --> 03:23.047 your spare time during Thanksgiving's break, 03:23.046 --> 03:24.926 to get started on it. 03:24.930 --> 03:26.350 And that's not a big deal. 03:26.348 --> 03:30.618 We want you to do something like six or, at most, 03:30.615 --> 03:33.425 eight pages; but more like six pages. 03:33.430 --> 03:40.030 This is not really much more than the usual test essays. 03:40.030 --> 03:41.170 Okay. 03:41.169 --> 03:43.139 Is that all clear? 03:43.139 --> 03:45.339 Any question about this? 03:45.340 --> 03:47.590 No. 03:47.590 --> 03:52.300 Anyway, we will try to be as un-bureaucratic about this as in 03:52.300 --> 03:55.520 a bureaucratic organization you can be. 03:55.520 --> 03:56.580 All right? 03:56.580 --> 04:00.040 As you have seen in this course, we were trying to break 04:00.044 --> 04:03.134 the rules of bureaucracy, and hopefully not at the 04:03.132 --> 04:04.772 expense of efficiency. 04:04.770 --> 04:11.360 All right, so this is Weber theory on class. 04:11.360 --> 04:15.420 And this is probably--Weber, next to Marx, 04:15.420 --> 04:19.780 is the most influential theorist of class. 04:19.778 --> 04:24.348 And they are also on a collision course with each 04:24.348 --> 04:28.248 other--a collision course in many ways. 04:28.250 --> 04:31.070 I will elaborate on this. 04:31.069 --> 04:35.919 But just to foreshadow, there are really three 04:35.915 --> 04:42.695 fundamentally important issues where Marx and Weber disagree. 04:42.699 --> 04:47.729 Marx, as you recall, identified classes in property 04:47.726 --> 04:49.036 relationship. 04:49.035 --> 04:49.935 Right? 04:49.940 --> 04:53.310 The class dichotomy was between those who owned capital and 04:53.307 --> 04:55.687 those who owned only their labor power. 04:55.690 --> 05:00.450 Weber, in contrast, defines classes on the 05:00.454 --> 05:04.644 marketplace, as market situations. 05:04.639 --> 05:09.139 So the relationship--this will be more complicated--but then 05:09.137 --> 05:13.177 the class relationship is between the employer and the 05:13.177 --> 05:16.297 employee; it is between the manager and 05:16.302 --> 05:20.352 the worker, and not the owner--right?--and the possessor 05:20.346 --> 05:21.666 of labor power. 05:21.670 --> 05:25.150 Then Marx also said, "Well all history of 05:25.149 --> 05:28.859 humankind is history of class struggles." 05:28.860 --> 05:35.250 So Marx has a theory of class which is overarching the whole 05:35.254 --> 05:36.994 human history. 05:36.990 --> 05:39.750 Weber is very specific about this. 05:39.750 --> 05:41.800 Class is a modern phenomenon. 05:41.800 --> 05:45.890 Classes only emerged with the emergence of the market economy, 05:45.889 --> 05:47.229 market capitalism. 05:47.230 --> 05:51.800 Before capitalism they are not--the stratification system 05:51.798 --> 05:55.748 is not based on class, but it is based on status, 05:55.752 --> 06:00.022 and we will talk about the notion of status a great deal. 06:00.019 --> 06:04.449 And finally there is a third important political difference. 06:04.449 --> 06:08.359 Marx believed that class struggle gets more intense over 06:08.355 --> 06:12.045 time, and therefore the subordinated class eventually 06:12.048 --> 06:14.958 will revolt and overthrow capitalism. 06:14.959 --> 06:21.359 Weber believed that--in the opposite: Class struggle is the 06:21.358 --> 06:26.888 most intense in early stages, rough stages of capitalism, 06:26.894 --> 06:31.354 and as capitalism becomes consolidated and bureaucratized, 06:31.350 --> 06:34.840 class struggle is actually reduced. 06:34.839 --> 06:38.559 So these are the three fundamental differences. 06:38.560 --> 06:42.820 And this is the outline of the presentation today. 06:42.819 --> 06:48.069 So first of all I want to talk about the usual interpretation 06:48.069 --> 06:52.969 of Weber, and I want to challenge this interpretation. 06:52.970 --> 06:57.440 If you ever took a course in which Weber's theory of class 06:57.444 --> 07:00.044 was discussed, you usually had the 07:00.036 --> 07:03.016 interpretation what I present now. 07:03.019 --> 07:06.789 If you go on the internet and you find what Weber's got about 07:06.793 --> 07:08.683 class, this is what you get. 07:08.680 --> 07:13.060 I disagree with it, and I will try to show you why 07:13.057 --> 07:15.647 this is the wrong approach. 07:15.649 --> 07:22.089 The usual interpretation goes back to a British sociologist, 07:22.089 --> 07:26.929 Runciman, who wrote about this already in the 1960s-- 07:26.930 --> 07:35.320 he's still active actually--and he interpreted Weber as offering 07:35.317 --> 07:42.237 a theory of social inequality in three dimensions. 07:42.240 --> 07:48.320 Again, go on the internet; ninety percent of internet 07:48.315 --> 07:53.685 posting on Weber and class will give you this view. 07:53.690 --> 07:56.490 What are those three dimensions? 07:56.490 --> 07:59.540 Status or prestige is one dimension; 07:59.540 --> 08:04.040 the second is class, usually defined by income or 08:04.036 --> 08:07.546 wealth; and the third dimension is 08:07.550 --> 08:08.270 power. 08:08.269 --> 08:13.879 And therefore if you look at stratification in society, 08:13.879 --> 08:18.649 people can be unequal in any of these-- 08:18.649 --> 08:22.679 can be privileged in any of these dimensions, 08:22.680 --> 08:25.960 or all of the dimensions, as such. 08:25.959 --> 08:33.279 Runciman's conceptualization of Weber's theory of class was 08:33.275 --> 08:38.695 extremely influential empirical research. 08:38.700 --> 08:42.770 There was a lot of empirical survey research carried out 08:42.765 --> 08:46.975 which was trying to measure how people fare in these three 08:46.980 --> 08:48.090 dimensions. 08:48.090 --> 08:52.680 Gerhard Lenski, who was Emeritus Professor, 08:52.684 --> 08:58.054 was professor at the University of North Carolina, 08:58.047 --> 09:03.187 created the theory of status inconsistency. 09:03.190 --> 09:08.770 The idea was that people actually can be high in one of 09:08.769 --> 09:13.519 these dimensions, and relatively low in another 09:13.523 --> 09:14.973 dimension. 09:14.970 --> 09:19.410 So, for instance, you are a professor of 09:19.412 --> 09:20.782 sociology. 09:20.778 --> 09:28.198 Then your prestige is sort of reasonable--probably somewhat 09:28.202 --> 09:31.022 higher than average. 09:31.019 --> 09:36.099 If you are a professor at Yale, it's sort of even a little 09:36.095 --> 09:40.095 higher than average, substantially higher than 09:40.101 --> 09:41.171 average. 09:41.168 --> 09:45.638 Well in terms of income, if you are a professor of 09:45.640 --> 09:50.390 sociology you will be again only slightly higher than 09:50.385 --> 09:53.575 average--will not be very high. 09:53.580 --> 09:57.140 In terms of power, well you will be very low in 09:57.144 --> 09:58.854 the power hierarchy. 09:58.850 --> 10:02.880 At least in the United States--right?--nobody listens 10:02.884 --> 10:05.294 what sociologists are saying. 10:05.288 --> 10:07.858 Students do have to--right?--and occasionally 10:07.855 --> 10:10.125 they have to take a sociology course. 10:10.129 --> 10:13.839 That's the only power really a professor exercises. 10:13.840 --> 10:21.330 Well if you are a Supreme Court justice, then your prestige is 10:21.331 --> 10:25.101 extremely high; you are on the top of the 10:25.096 --> 10:28.516 prestige hierarchy, at least in the United States. 10:28.519 --> 10:32.709 If you are asking who is the most prestigious occupation in 10:32.712 --> 10:34.162 the United States? 10:34.158 --> 10:37.498 In surveys people will say to be a Supreme Court 10:37.503 --> 10:40.993 justice--right?--to serve on the Supreme Court. 10:40.990 --> 10:44.430 Well in terms of income, the Supreme Court justices 10:44.429 --> 10:46.769 probably don't do all that well. 10:46.769 --> 10:50.669 They probably do about as university professors do. 10:50.666 --> 10:51.286 Right? 10:51.288 --> 10:55.678 People in public service usually don't do all that well. 10:55.678 --> 11:00.548 I think probably a governor of a state is not earning more than 11:00.553 --> 11:02.523 a university professor. 11:02.519 --> 11:06.699 But in terms of power they will be very high. 11:06.700 --> 11:07.460 Right? 11:07.460 --> 11:10.240 Supreme Court justices are very high. 11:10.240 --> 11:13.860 Occasionally they can even appoint--right?--the President 11:13.855 --> 11:18.385 of the United States; if I may crack this joke. Right? 11:18.389 --> 11:20.129 Anyway, they are very powerful. 11:20.129 --> 11:24.149 Well if you think about a Mafioso. 11:24.149 --> 11:29.659 The prestige of a godfather, except in the Mafia, 11:29.657 --> 11:31.607 will be very low. 11:31.606 --> 11:32.636 Right? 11:32.639 --> 11:34.279 You regard it as criminal. 11:34.279 --> 11:38.539 In terms of income, will be on the very top. 11:38.537 --> 11:39.327 Right? 11:39.330 --> 11:42.700 In terms of power, well will have some power, 11:42.702 --> 11:46.462 but mainly in the Mafia, not really nationally. 11:46.460 --> 11:48.430 You see what they are getting at? 11:48.428 --> 11:53.768 So therefore you can measure status, class and power as three 11:53.772 --> 11:54.932 dimensions. 11:54.928 --> 12:00.188 And it is very helpful to understand whether the social 12:00.192 --> 12:02.632 status is crystallized. 12:02.629 --> 12:08.409 People who have high prestige also have high incomes and high 12:08.412 --> 12:11.712 power, and let's say somebody who is 12:11.710 --> 12:17.180 sweeping the floor-- right?--will have very low 12:17.179 --> 12:20.989 prestige, very low income and no power at 12:20.991 --> 12:21.281 all. 12:21.280 --> 12:21.860 Right? 12:21.860 --> 12:26.200 So that is a useful way how to stratify society for upper-upper 12:26.200 --> 12:28.230 class to lower-lower class. 12:28.230 --> 12:32.310 That is the way how Weber usually has been used. 12:32.309 --> 12:35.609 Well I will challenge this. 12:35.610 --> 12:42.320 I don't think I'm the only one who does challenges. 12:42.320 --> 12:45.340 Anthony Giddens, I think, gets very close to 12:45.340 --> 12:48.640 what I am describing, though probably he doesn't 12:48.639 --> 12:51.379 stick his neck out as much as I do. 12:51.379 --> 12:56.049 My fundamental argument is that Weber's distinction between 12:56.047 --> 12:59.827 class and status is a historical distinction. 12:59.830 --> 13:04.570 And this is not accidental that this is an English speaking 13:04.565 --> 13:08.395 person, Runciman, who reads the notion of status 13:08.403 --> 13:10.693 the way how he reads it. 13:10.690 --> 13:14.940 Because if you know a little German, 13:14.940 --> 13:17.910 and you try to read Weber in German-- 13:17.908 --> 13:23.288 you know that the word status is actually translated from the 13:23.287 --> 13:25.077 word Stand. 13:25.080 --> 13:28.540 And Stand, well it can be translated into 13:28.542 --> 13:31.642 English as status, but it's a not very good 13:31.636 --> 13:33.696 translation of the word. 13:33.700 --> 13:36.640 The better translation is estate. 13:36.639 --> 13:41.669 Now if you would translate Stand as estate, 13:41.668 --> 13:45.528 it would become obvious that what Weber is trying to suggest, 13:45.529 --> 13:49.949 that there is something archaic about status stratification, 13:49.950 --> 13:53.490 as distinct from class stratification, 13:53.490 --> 13:55.900 which is a modern phenomenon. 13:55.898 --> 13:56.478 Right? 13:56.480 --> 14:02.440 So this will be one of the major points what I'm trying to 14:02.441 --> 14:07.671 make, and will try to show this from Weber text. 14:07.668 --> 14:12.958 Then the question is where is the third dimension? 14:12.956 --> 14:13.816 Right? 14:13.820 --> 14:17.260 As I've said, status and class are historical 14:17.264 --> 14:19.854 categories, but where is power? 14:19.850 --> 14:24.350 And when I was working on one of my books, I was very much 14:24.346 --> 14:28.836 attracted to Runciman's idea, and tried to interpret Weber 14:28.844 --> 14:29.874 this way. 14:29.870 --> 14:34.340 And, in fact, it appeared to me a great deal 14:34.336 --> 14:41.086 to use power as an independent dimension of the class position. 14:41.090 --> 14:45.500 I was trying to understand the social structure of communist 14:45.495 --> 14:49.595 societies, and their power appeared to be an independent 14:49.604 --> 14:50.654 dimension. 14:50.649 --> 14:52.629 So I was looking into the Weber text, 14:52.629 --> 14:56.099 and I read cover to cover Economy and Society a 14:56.104 --> 14:59.854 couple of times, and I could not find the third 14:59.845 --> 15:00.755 dimension. 15:00.759 --> 15:03.179 Read it: it is not there. 15:03.178 --> 15:08.618 So trying to understand what Weber is getting at, 15:08.620 --> 15:15.540 I came to the conclusion that for Weber power is the dependent 15:15.535 --> 15:17.005 variable. 15:17.009 --> 15:21.009 But he wants to explain where power comes from, 15:21.009 --> 15:26.379 and whether power exercised is exercised on the basis of class 15:26.378 --> 15:31.108 privileges, or whether it is a status type 15:31.110 --> 15:36.240 of, or estate type, of power which is exercised in 15:36.244 --> 15:37.054 society. 15:37.048 --> 15:40.498 And this is very consistent what you already know about Max 15:40.500 --> 15:43.590 Weber--right?--type of authorities, where power comes 15:43.594 --> 15:44.134 from. 15:44.129 --> 15:47.649 What legitimates power--right?--tradition or 15:47.653 --> 15:49.703 legal-rational authority? 15:49.702 --> 15:50.442 Right? 15:50.440 --> 15:53.860 Class stratification corresponds to societies based 15:53.857 --> 15:55.907 on legal-rational authority. 15:55.908 --> 15:59.388 Status stratification corresponds to traditional 15:59.390 --> 16:00.280 authority. 16:00.279 --> 16:01.829 All right? 16:01.830 --> 16:05.890 Well I will elaborate a little on this-- 16:05.889 --> 16:10.569 will qualify this somewhat, primarily because Weber-- 16:10.570 --> 16:15.560 like in his types of authority as well-- 16:15.558 --> 16:20.058 has two balls in the air at the same time. 16:20.058 --> 16:22.268 He has a macro-theory--right?--of 16:22.274 --> 16:25.184 historical variations of stratification. 16:25.178 --> 16:30.408 For him, transition from traditional society in modern 16:30.408 --> 16:35.638 rational societies is a transition from estate type of 16:35.636 --> 16:39.876 stratification to class stratification. 16:39.879 --> 16:45.419 But Weber also has a micro-theory. 16:45.418 --> 16:49.168 He also said, "Okay, society today is 16:49.167 --> 16:54.457 primarily class stratified, but I can identify status power 16:54.460 --> 16:58.740 in modern societies as well," just exactly as he 16:58.738 --> 17:01.698 does with the types of authority. 17:01.700 --> 17:06.580 Yes, the United States today is legal-rational authority, 17:06.578 --> 17:10.438 but I can spot elements of traditional authority, 17:10.440 --> 17:14.950 or charismatic authority, operating within legal-rational 17:14.951 --> 17:15.921 authority. 17:15.920 --> 17:19.150 Since it is dominantly legal-rational authority, 17:19.148 --> 17:20.728 it will be secondary. 17:20.730 --> 17:24.290 Law will make a difference. 17:24.288 --> 17:29.078 But tradition in this society, in this very America today, 17:29.079 --> 17:31.009 does make a difference. 17:31.012 --> 17:31.772 Right? 17:31.769 --> 17:35.569 It is consequential where you are in society. 17:35.568 --> 17:39.458 Traditional authority is consequential. 17:39.460 --> 17:40.280 Right? 17:40.279 --> 17:45.609 We are all equal before the law, but in practice where we 17:45.614 --> 17:49.524 end up has a lot to do with tradition, 17:49.519 --> 17:53.739 traditional prejudices, the traditional way how power 17:53.737 --> 17:54.627 operates. 17:54.630 --> 17:58.980 The same goes for--he brings back the idea of status. 17:58.980 --> 18:03.350 This is why I said translating Stand as status is not 18:03.352 --> 18:04.762 completely wrong. 18:04.759 --> 18:10.059 It only gets a footnote in the Weber concept. 18:10.056 --> 18:11.016 Right? 18:11.019 --> 18:16.899 The footnote is Stand is primarily a historical concept 18:16.904 --> 18:20.094 for past traditional societies. 18:20.088 --> 18:22.898 But by the way--this is the footnote-- 18:22.900 --> 18:28.090 even in contemporary society, in class stratified societies, 18:28.088 --> 18:32.458 there is power occasionally exercised on the basis of 18:32.462 --> 18:33.222 status. 18:33.220 --> 18:41.770 Well and obviously the power which is exercised by a Supreme 18:41.767 --> 18:46.237 Court judge, or the power exercised by a 18:46.244 --> 18:50.394 university professor, the little one we have--that we 18:50.394 --> 18:53.994 may probably in some way try to change your mind-- 18:53.990 --> 18:58.390 right?--which is an act of power, some would say even an 18:58.390 --> 19:00.150 act of coercive power. 19:00.150 --> 19:00.870 Right? 19:00.868 --> 19:04.248 Bourdieu called it symbolic violence. 19:04.249 --> 19:04.999 Right? 19:05.000 --> 19:09.780 I violate your mind; if I can penetrate your mind 19:09.776 --> 19:12.096 and put a new idea into your mind. 19:12.104 --> 19:12.744 Right? 19:12.740 --> 19:14.680 This is an act of power. 19:14.680 --> 19:19.460 Well it's primarily done, or a great deal done, 19:19.461 --> 19:21.881 by status; that you say, 19:21.877 --> 19:26.097 "Well, this is a professor who has a Ph.D., 19:26.102 --> 19:28.082 must know it." 19:28.079 --> 19:28.839 Right? 19:28.838 --> 19:33.078 Then it is really--right?--the reason why you start believing 19:33.083 --> 19:35.633 me has a lot to do with my status. 19:35.630 --> 19:39.090 Hopefully not only the status; hopefully I can make a good 19:39.085 --> 19:40.705 argument and persuade you. 19:40.710 --> 19:44.240 But occasionally--it's a mixture why you tend to believe 19:44.239 --> 19:45.519 me or disbelieve me. 19:45.521 --> 19:46.101 Right? 19:46.098 --> 19:50.648 And the very fact of the status, what I am incumbent of, 19:50.654 --> 19:55.384 has something to do--right?--of you trying to believe your 19:55.376 --> 19:56.616 professors. 19:56.618 --> 20:03.888 So let me work on the notion how Weber defines classes. 20:03.890 --> 20:08.750 And the most important issue is--the uniquely Weberian idea 20:08.752 --> 20:13.032 is that class has to be identified on the market. 20:13.028 --> 20:18.578 And then I will also say a few words about class interests and 20:18.577 --> 20:23.487 how he--to what extent he's different from Marx in this 20:23.488 --> 20:24.578 respect. 20:24.579 --> 20:26.339 So class and market. 20:26.338 --> 20:30.818 Now here you have famous definitions. 20:30.818 --> 20:35.218 He said class situation is determined by market situation. 20:35.220 --> 20:40.660 Class situation is ultimately a market situation. 20:40.660 --> 20:43.930 And this is very important now, as follows. 20:43.934 --> 20:44.564 Right? 20:44.558 --> 20:48.288 "The effects of naked possession per se is only the 20:48.291 --> 20:51.211 forerunner of real class formation." 20:51.210 --> 20:54.490 "Slaves", he said--or you can say 20:54.494 --> 20:56.924 serfs--"are not a class. 20:56.920 --> 21:00.050 They are rather a status group." 21:00.048 --> 21:03.838 Now here you can see--right?--the historical uses 21:03.836 --> 21:07.226 of the distinction between class and status. 21:07.230 --> 21:08.020 Right? 21:08.019 --> 21:11.449 And also the challenge to Marx. 21:11.450 --> 21:17.190 Those who have property and deprived from property do not 21:17.188 --> 21:19.338 constitute a class. 21:19.338 --> 21:24.608 And the fundamental argument for this is that in traditional 21:24.612 --> 21:29.622 societies it is not really property which puts you into a 21:29.615 --> 21:31.845 high status position. 21:31.848 --> 21:36.048 You being in a high status position has the consequence 21:36.047 --> 21:37.677 that you are wealthy. 21:37.680 --> 21:38.380 Right? 21:38.380 --> 21:44.280 So the king or the queen decides to give you nobility, 21:44.277 --> 21:46.947 and gives you an estate. 21:46.948 --> 21:47.948 Right? 21:47.950 --> 21:52.960 In capitalism this works the other way around. 21:52.960 --> 21:56.170 In order to become a billionaire--right?--you don't 21:56.167 --> 22:00.337 have to get the approval of the President of the United States. 22:00.338 --> 22:04.358 Simple enough: you go to Wall Street, 22:04.363 --> 22:07.943 you invest your money smartly. 22:07.940 --> 22:11.130 You start with a thousand dollars and in no time you have 22:11.127 --> 22:14.257 a billion--right?--if you invested it in a smart way. 22:14.259 --> 22:17.919 And then you are in the class--right?--of billionaires. 22:17.917 --> 22:18.457 Right? 22:18.460 --> 22:24.880 So here it is your property, and your activity on the 22:24.881 --> 22:30.681 marketplace, which helps you to enter the class. 22:30.684 --> 22:31.924 Right? 22:31.920 --> 22:36.000 In the aristocracy it was a legal act-- 22:36.000 --> 22:39.950 right?--a political act, by a king or a queen, 22:39.950 --> 22:43.220 which made you nobility, made you a lord, 22:43.220 --> 22:47.760 and then as a consequence you became wealthy. 22:47.762 --> 22:48.592 Right? 22:48.588 --> 22:50.328 It's also interesting, by the way, 22:50.328 --> 22:53.258 that well if you lost your wealth--there was some poor 22:53.263 --> 22:57.613 noble people-- you still retained your status 22:57.608 --> 22:59.798 estate privileges. 22:59.798 --> 23:02.458 So if you were nobility, in most societies, 23:02.462 --> 23:05.382 for instance, you did not have to pay taxes. 23:05.380 --> 23:09.550 Now if you lost all of your estate, 23:09.548 --> 23:11.868 because you gambled--for instance--right?-- 23:11.868 --> 23:15.668 you wanted to go to Monte Carlo where you gambled everything 23:15.673 --> 23:17.623 away-- then you became very poor. 23:17.618 --> 23:21.448 You were still noble and you still did not have 23:21.451 --> 23:23.451 to--right?--pay taxes. 23:23.450 --> 23:27.000 Your status privileges remained. 23:27.000 --> 23:29.600 The opposite--right?--in capitalism. 23:29.598 --> 23:34.808 You start fully investing your money and you lose your money on 23:34.806 --> 23:38.666 the stock market, you cease to be a capitalist. 23:38.670 --> 23:39.510 Right? 23:39.509 --> 23:42.249 Then you will have to seek to find a job. 23:42.250 --> 23:42.800 Right? 23:42.798 --> 23:46.218 And since you lost all of your money, you probably will not 23:46.218 --> 23:49.048 find a very good job, because who wants to hire a 23:49.047 --> 23:49.397 loser? 23:49.401 --> 23:50.051 Right? 23:50.049 --> 23:54.149 Okay. 23:54.150 --> 24:00.360 This is also a very important citation from Weber. 24:00.358 --> 24:04.598 He said, "Class position really means that people have 24:04.599 --> 24:06.499 common life chances." 24:06.500 --> 24:07.160 Right? 24:07.160 --> 24:11.890 If you are located differently, there are positively and 24:11.894 --> 24:14.184 negatively-- this is the Weberian 24:14.180 --> 24:17.370 point--positively and negatively privileged positions on the 24:17.368 --> 24:18.178 marketplace. 24:18.180 --> 24:22.870 And if you are negatively privileged in the marketplace, 24:22.871 --> 24:25.861 your life chances are not very good. 24:25.855 --> 24:26.705 Right? 24:26.710 --> 24:30.040 If you are positively privileged in the marketplace, 24:30.041 --> 24:32.331 then your life chances are great. 24:32.328 --> 24:35.708 You guys in this room are all very positively 24:35.713 --> 24:40.333 privileged--right?--because you are getting a Yale degree; 24:40.328 --> 24:44.598 and probably a Harvard degree would be even better for you. 24:44.598 --> 24:48.538 Don't tell Rick Levin that I said that in class. 24:48.538 --> 24:49.208 Right? 24:49.210 --> 24:55.540 But this is about the best degree what you can have. 24:55.538 --> 24:59.368 So you are extremely well-positioned on the labor 24:59.372 --> 24:59.932 market. 24:59.931 --> 25:00.651 Right? 25:00.650 --> 25:03.000 Your life chances are great. 25:03.000 --> 25:03.590 Right? 25:03.588 --> 25:07.168 You have to make a lot of mistakes to screw this one. 25:07.169 --> 25:07.719 Right? 25:07.720 --> 25:10.530 You are on the right trajectory. 25:10.528 --> 25:14.948 If you are in a community college--right?--or you are a 25:14.949 --> 25:18.959 high school dropout, then your life chances on the 25:18.959 --> 25:21.169 labor market will be lousy. 25:21.169 --> 25:22.069 Right? 25:22.068 --> 25:27.608 Especially you are poor, you are African-American, 25:27.608 --> 25:33.108 you dropped out of high school, well your chances that you will 25:33.113 --> 25:37.023 end up in jail before you turn thirty is, 25:37.019 --> 25:38.499 I think, seventy percent. 25:38.500 --> 25:43.240 So--right?--this is life chances--right?--which in this 25:43.240 --> 25:46.400 case, of course it is not only class. 25:46.402 --> 25:47.282 Right? 25:47.279 --> 25:50.149 There is a special type of status group. 25:50.151 --> 25:50.741 Right? 25:50.740 --> 25:53.960 Race, it also plays a role--right?--in your 25:53.958 --> 25:56.178 deteriorating life chances. 25:56.180 --> 26:01.310 Now let me also say that Weber actually suggests that you can 26:01.311 --> 26:05.761 think of classes on every single market situation. 26:05.759 --> 26:10.299 So, for instance, some people--and myself in my 26:10.300 --> 26:15.040 work--have been writing about housing classes. 26:15.038 --> 26:19.708 The differences between the owner of a house and the tenant 26:19.707 --> 26:24.777 who rents this house is a class relationship--can be interpreted 26:24.776 --> 26:27.026 as a class relationship. 26:27.028 --> 26:30.238 The landlords, very often by the tenants, 26:30.240 --> 26:33.420 are seen as bloodsuckers--right?--because 26:33.417 --> 26:38.107 they charge too high rent and they do not maintain your unit 26:38.105 --> 26:39.135 properly. 26:39.140 --> 26:40.100 You know? 26:40.098 --> 26:43.618 When you call them and you say that the water is dripping, 26:43.618 --> 26:47.408 and I need a plumber, they will find excuses why they 26:47.407 --> 26:52.457 do not fix your water, or why they do not fix your 26:52.457 --> 26:53.407 heating. 26:53.413 --> 26:54.373 Right? 26:54.369 --> 26:56.829 So they are bloodsuckers. Right? 26:56.828 --> 26:59.818 And, as a tenant, you are in a negatively 26:59.817 --> 27:01.907 privileged class position. 27:01.910 --> 27:03.610 That's true. 27:03.608 --> 27:07.828 But on the other hand Weber is quite clear that there are two 27:07.826 --> 27:12.256 important market positions which fundamentally define your class 27:12.255 --> 27:17.935 position, and these are the labor market 27:17.940 --> 27:21.640 and, in fact, the capital market, 27:21.641 --> 27:26.331 will define whether you are-- have good life chances or poor 27:26.325 --> 27:27.125 life chances. 27:27.130 --> 27:30.230 And all other positions, on other markets, 27:30.230 --> 27:34.770 will be a consequence of your position primarily on the labor 27:34.768 --> 27:37.338 market, or on capital markets. 27:37.338 --> 27:42.228 Well this actually brings Weber and Marx a little closer than it 27:42.231 --> 27:45.781 appeared for the first time-- right?--because, 27:45.775 --> 27:48.965 as we will see, Weber does acknowledge that if 27:48.970 --> 27:53.430 there is a market economy, differences in property are 27:53.433 --> 27:57.243 very important to creating class positions. 27:57.240 --> 28:00.960 But, unlike Marx, he emphasizes this is only the 28:00.963 --> 28:04.533 case if there is a market economy in place. 28:04.528 --> 28:09.528 Now just very briefly about class interest and class action. 28:09.528 --> 28:13.598 And here he said, "Well the statement by a 28:13.602 --> 28:18.562 talented author"--he doesn't tell us who that author 28:18.559 --> 28:21.259 is; I assume it must be Karl 28:21.260 --> 28:26.550 Marx--"that the individual may be in error concerning his 28:26.549 --> 28:31.839 interests but the class is infallible about its interest, 28:31.838 --> 28:34.238 is false and pseudo-scientific." 28:34.240 --> 28:38.100 So he said, "Well the classes are actually not 28:38.103 --> 28:39.493 communities." 28:39.493 --> 28:40.193 Right? 28:40.190 --> 28:44.210 A community may have a kind of collective understanding. 28:44.210 --> 28:49.820 You belong to a class just because of your position of the 28:49.817 --> 28:53.557 labor market, and you actually--here he 28:53.557 --> 28:56.017 subscribes to Adam Smith. 28:56.017 --> 28:57.097 Right? 28:57.098 --> 29:02.118 Class members are individuals acting out of self-interest, 29:02.122 --> 29:06.002 and not acting out of collective interest. 29:06.000 --> 29:07.830 But they are in a similar position, 29:07.828 --> 29:10.798 and therefore they have common class interests, 29:10.798 --> 29:13.848 and--surprise, surprise--occasionally they 29:13.849 --> 29:17.739 will act the same way-- right?--because they have a 29:17.740 --> 29:21.320 collective interest; but not as a community, 29:21.324 --> 29:26.214 but as rationally acting individuals, determined by their 29:26.205 --> 29:30.385 rational actions--right?--on the marketplace. 29:30.390 --> 29:34.140 And therefore, he said, "Well classes 29:34.137 --> 29:39.707 will really exist--well how can I tell that the classes really 29:39.714 --> 29:40.634 exist? 29:40.630 --> 29:43.570 I can tell if I see classes acting. 29:43.568 --> 29:46.998 Classes materialize in action--right?-- 29:47.000 --> 29:51.570 because I speculatively cannot make any class distinction, 29:51.568 --> 29:55.528 but people will make distinctions for classes by 29:55.527 --> 29:58.977 acting upon their class interest." 29:58.980 --> 30:04.830 Now let's go on to the question of status groups; 30:04.829 --> 30:06.359 what are status groups? 30:06.358 --> 30:11.218 And well I briefly want to identify who status groups are, 30:11.220 --> 30:17.090 what status privileges are, and then status stratification 30:17.088 --> 30:20.678 and the caste, and the question of ethnicity 30:20.683 --> 30:21.323 in Weber. 30:21.319 --> 30:22.869 So what is a status group? 30:22.868 --> 30:26.128 Well, unlike classes, status group, 30:26.134 --> 30:30.644 or Stande--this is the plural of the word 30:30.644 --> 30:34.394 Stand--are nominally groups. 30:34.390 --> 30:40.000 Status groups means that you belong to a group--right?--and 30:39.998 --> 30:44.638 you have a high esteem, and you have a solidarity 30:44.638 --> 30:46.668 within the group. 30:46.670 --> 30:49.880 You have an honor; a certain honor is attributed 30:49.875 --> 30:52.175 to you when you are in a status group. 30:52.179 --> 30:52.739 Right? 30:52.740 --> 30:57.960 You are initiated--right?--into becoming a nobleman by an act of 30:57.961 --> 30:59.951 the king or the queen. 30:59.950 --> 31:05.130 Well in order to get a university degree, 31:05.126 --> 31:11.466 you are initiated--right?--into a status group. 31:11.470 --> 31:16.230 In a way to earn a university degree--a Bachelor's degree, 31:16.234 --> 31:20.504 a Ph.D.--is entering in some ways a status group. 31:20.500 --> 31:25.940 It's not accidental that we wear these funny medieval robes 31:25.942 --> 31:31.482 on those ceremonies where the degree is conferred on you. 31:31.480 --> 31:35.770 And many professions which require formal university 31:35.766 --> 31:40.056 training act as a status group; like the doctors 31:40.056 --> 31:43.466 constitute--right?--a status group. 31:43.470 --> 31:47.630 Like, in some ways, university professors 31:47.634 --> 31:50.554 constitute a status group. 31:50.548 --> 31:56.168 Lawyers constitute a status group, and they somehow control 31:56.166 --> 32:00.326 ethics and entrance into the law profession. 32:00.330 --> 32:01.300 Right? 32:01.298 --> 32:05.018 There you have to pass a board exam if you want to become a 32:05.015 --> 32:05.455 lawyer. 32:05.462 --> 32:06.042 Right? 32:06.038 --> 32:09.228 And, in fact, states will make--in 32:09.227 --> 32:11.907 California, if you want to move to 32:11.911 --> 32:15.541 California, you want to get a law degree and you want to move 32:15.539 --> 32:17.799 to California, you will sweat 32:17.797 --> 32:21.047 blood--right?--to pass the board exam. 32:21.048 --> 32:25.488 If you want to go to South Dakota, you will easily pass the 32:25.492 --> 32:26.492 board exam. 32:26.490 --> 32:29.550 Because there are not many lawyers who want to be lawyers 32:29.550 --> 32:32.430 in South Dakota, but there are many lawyers who 32:32.429 --> 32:34.759 want to be lawyers in San Francisco, 32:34.759 --> 32:37.579 and therefore the board, California board, 32:37.578 --> 32:40.718 will be much stricter than the South Dakota board. 32:40.720 --> 32:43.370 The same goes for medical exams. 32:43.365 --> 32:44.045 Right? 32:44.048 --> 32:49.098 It will be--again you have to pass exams, and it will be 32:49.101 --> 32:53.971 different, depending on the labor market condition. 32:53.970 --> 32:57.720 And it's very important: The status honor is expressed 32:57.724 --> 32:59.714 with a specific lifestyle. 32:59.710 --> 33:03.430 The way how you dress, the way how you eat, 33:03.430 --> 33:08.120 the way how you behave, is constituting what is status 33:08.124 --> 33:09.014 group. 33:09.009 --> 33:12.309 Traditionally--right?--noblemen could wear arms; 33:12.309 --> 33:18.299 non-nobles couldn't. 33:18.298 --> 33:23.398 And well if you are a Yale professor you wear J. Press. 33:23.395 --> 33:24.335 Right? 33:24.339 --> 33:27.229 > 33:27.230 --> 33:31.080 I mean, not everybody does, but you can tell this is a Yale 33:31.082 --> 33:31.882 professor. 33:31.880 --> 33:38.880 You can see this is a J.***Press coat. 33:38.880 --> 33:42.100 So there are--right?--lifestyles, 33:42.096 --> 33:45.816 what in a way, even in modern society, 33:45.815 --> 33:48.725 constitute status groups. 33:48.730 --> 33:51.180 Even within class stratification, 33:51.182 --> 33:55.092 you have this uniquely lifestyle specific stuff, 33:55.088 --> 34:00.688 what you adapt in order to belong to this status group kind 34:00.690 --> 34:03.490 of subgroup within a class. 34:03.490 --> 34:06.620 So if you are a "yuppie"--young urban 34:06.616 --> 34:09.466 professional, right?--you get a nice job on 34:09.472 --> 34:11.782 Wall Street, you move to Manhattan. 34:11.784 --> 34:12.604 Right? 34:12.599 --> 34:18.629 Then you rent out--right?--or buy a condo somewhere in a Trump 34:18.630 --> 34:19.520 building. 34:19.519 --> 34:20.409 Right? 34:20.409 --> 34:26.419 Then you want to be driven by a limo to your workplace. 34:26.420 --> 34:30.040 You will be reading Wall Street Journal, 34:30.041 --> 34:33.591 and you will be going--right?--and you will be 34:33.585 --> 34:36.175 having croissants for the morning. 34:36.184 --> 34:37.134 Right? 34:37.130 --> 34:38.920 You see what I'm getting at. 34:38.922 --> 34:39.372 Right? 34:39.369 --> 34:41.509 You will be dressed in a certain way. 34:41.510 --> 34:44.740 People can tell--right?--this person must be a 34:44.735 --> 34:47.095 broker--right?--on Wall Street. 34:47.099 --> 34:50.979 There are these lifestyle characteristics what in a way 34:50.978 --> 34:53.348 creates an almost status group. 34:53.349 --> 34:55.389 You know each other. Right? 34:55.389 --> 34:57.639 You recognize each other. Right? 34:57.639 --> 35:00.269 There are places where you hang together. 35:00.273 --> 35:00.803 Right? 35:00.800 --> 35:02.350 There are yuppie places. 35:02.349 --> 35:05.089 You look outside and you know this is a yuppie bar, 35:05.092 --> 35:06.302 filled with yuppies. 35:06.300 --> 35:09.480 This is the lifestyle by which you have status. 35:09.480 --> 35:13.830 There are also, of course, status privileges-- 35:13.829 --> 35:18.369 which is ideal and material goods, which is a consequence of 35:18.365 --> 35:27.535 you being in that status group, rather than the source of it. 35:27.539 --> 35:31.009 And there are also specific special employment 35:31.014 --> 35:34.034 opportunities, if you belong to a status 35:34.027 --> 35:37.577 group, and it's being controlled this way. 35:37.579 --> 35:40.729 I mean, the medical profession is a very good example. 35:40.730 --> 35:45.520 And it's being actually debated and questioned why on earth do 35:45.523 --> 35:50.243 we need a system in which people have to have registered-- 35:50.239 --> 35:53.879 do have to have a medical degree in order to practice 35:53.880 --> 35:54.510 medicine? 35:54.510 --> 35:55.140 Right? 35:55.139 --> 35:58.419 Why on earth people do have to have a law degree in order to 35:58.418 --> 36:00.858 appear in court and defend somebody in court? 36:00.864 --> 36:01.424 Right? 36:01.420 --> 36:10.240 These are kind of status group barriers to enter the system. 36:10.239 --> 36:13.399 Well the market, on the other hand, 36:13.396 --> 36:16.366 knows no personal distinction. 36:16.369 --> 36:19.679 On the market it matters whether you are successful or 36:19.675 --> 36:20.795 you are a failure. 36:20.797 --> 36:21.357 Right? 36:21.360 --> 36:25.440 And therefore if you have these status group kind of privileges, 36:25.440 --> 36:28.870 this is a limitation on the functioning of the market. 36:28.871 --> 36:29.521 Right? 36:29.518 --> 36:33.558 And therefore stronger the status groups are, 36:33.561 --> 36:39.441 it can be a hindrance of free development of a market economy. 36:39.440 --> 36:44.600 And now an idea about caste and ethnicity. 36:44.599 --> 36:49.899 He said if the boundaries between status groups are 36:49.896 --> 36:55.926 particularly sharply drawn, in that case we can talk about 36:55.934 --> 36:57.104 castes. 36:57.099 --> 36:59.859 The caste differences occur, for instance, 36:59.855 --> 37:03.815 when there are prohibitions to intermarry between castes. 37:03.820 --> 37:08.200 Lower castes are usually seen as polluted, as dirty; 37:08.199 --> 37:13.129 you even cannot touch them, or if you did touch a low class 37:13.132 --> 37:17.812 person, let's say in Indian culture, you have to go some 37:17.811 --> 37:19.851 purification procedures. 37:19.853 --> 37:20.793 Right? 37:20.789 --> 37:25.589 And he said status groups--segregation grows into 37:25.590 --> 37:29.860 castes, that transforms a horizontal 37:29.860 --> 37:35.580 coexistence of ethnically segregated groups into a 37:35.583 --> 37:38.623 vertical social system. 37:38.619 --> 37:41.529 This is also very important--right?--his notion of 37:41.527 --> 37:42.237 ethnicity. 37:42.239 --> 37:47.479 It's a very innovative idea in writing this around 1920, 37:47.476 --> 37:48.516 about this. 37:48.523 --> 37:49.383 Right? 37:49.380 --> 37:54.840 The differences are held to be ethnic, based on the belief that 37:54.840 --> 37:58.630 it has something to do with blood relations. 37:58.628 --> 37:59.508 Right? 37:59.510 --> 38:02.020 He does not believe--right?--that ethnic 38:02.018 --> 38:06.008 differences really have anything to do with blood relations. 38:06.010 --> 38:10.600 You have ethic or racial differences when there is a 38:10.599 --> 38:15.189 common belief that blood relations do matter and are 38:15.190 --> 38:17.620 socially consequential. 38:17.619 --> 38:19.939 He doesn't believe it is. 38:19.940 --> 38:23.630 Now class and status compared. 38:23.630 --> 38:26.540 I am sort of running out of time; 38:26.539 --> 38:34.419 don't want to operate on--to do too much on this. 38:34.420 --> 38:45.480 The point is--right?--that there is some kind of stability 38:45.480 --> 38:50.720 in status stratification. 38:50.719 --> 38:56.579 Class stratification is dynamic and conflictuous. 38:56.579 --> 38:59.459 This is where his idea will come from that, 38:59.460 --> 39:03.790 that in fact, class relationships are not 39:03.789 --> 39:08.119 becoming more antagonistic over time, 39:08.119 --> 39:11.669 but is becoming less antagonistic over time. 39:11.670 --> 39:14.220 But the point is, as you can see, 39:14.215 --> 39:17.875 that the main point is that there are two basic 39:17.876 --> 39:21.456 stratification systems: one based on status or 39:21.458 --> 39:26.068 Stand, and the other one is on class 39:26.065 --> 39:27.725 stratification. 39:27.730 --> 39:31.450 Historical difference, but there is also a subtype of 39:31.454 --> 39:35.184 stratification in a class stratified society based on 39:35.181 --> 39:36.831 status differences. 39:36.829 --> 39:40.619 So what are--he makes a distinction between different 39:40.615 --> 39:41.995 types of classes. 39:42.000 --> 39:45.140 Let me just briefly rush through of it. 39:45.139 --> 39:50.629 He does not negate that there is actually a class based on 39:50.630 --> 39:51.690 property. 39:51.690 --> 39:55.630 There is actually--property differences can be very 39:55.626 --> 40:00.506 substantial, as long as they are operating in a marketplace. 40:00.510 --> 40:04.210 If your property can be sold or bought-- 40:04.210 --> 40:06.650 which was not the case under feudalism-- 40:06.650 --> 40:10.030 and if there is a labor market which complements capital 40:10.025 --> 40:13.675 markets, then differences in capital 40:13.677 --> 40:17.867 markets is the source of differences. 40:17.869 --> 40:21.359 40:21.360 --> 40:24.930 But the most important distinction is what he calls 40:24.929 --> 40:26.429 commercial classes. 40:26.429 --> 40:31.219 And commercial classes are based--right?--on the market 40:31.224 --> 40:35.844 situation, and particularly especially based on labor 40:35.844 --> 40:36.914 markets. 40:36.909 --> 40:40.319 And therefore the basic class distinction for Weber, 40:40.320 --> 40:43.820 in modern society, is between management and 40:43.820 --> 40:47.210 employees, rather than owners of capital 40:47.208 --> 40:50.418 and owners of labor power; unlike Marx. 40:50.420 --> 40:54.490 And that, I think, is a very insightful argument, 40:54.489 --> 40:59.369 at least an important qualification on Marx, 40:59.369 --> 41:03.419 or probably a useful replacement of Marx with a 41:03.422 --> 41:08.272 better fitting theory to understand modern societies. 41:08.268 --> 41:12.888 Okay, and then there are--he introduces the notion of social 41:12.887 --> 41:13.667 classes. 41:13.670 --> 41:17.200 There is a third type of class in modern society, 41:17.202 --> 41:18.972 which is social class. 41:18.969 --> 41:21.119 And what is social class? 41:21.119 --> 41:26.899 People are in a social class situation when individual and 41:26.900 --> 41:33.190 generational mobility is easy and typical within that class. 41:33.190 --> 41:36.340 And then he said, "Well what are social 41:36.338 --> 41:37.508 classes?" 41:37.510 --> 41:40.820 And interestingly he said, "Well these examples are-- 41:40.820 --> 41:45.190 working class is a social class, the petit bourgeoisie is 41:45.193 --> 41:46.993 a social class." 41:46.989 --> 41:50.659 The basic argument here is working class is not a 41:50.664 --> 41:52.124 commercial class. 41:52.119 --> 41:54.909 Working class--well he's writing in the nineteenth 41:54.909 --> 41:55.479 century. 41:55.480 --> 42:00.180 But it's still to some extent true in the United States today, 42:00.182 --> 42:02.652 probably the least so in the U.S. 42:02.650 --> 42:04.810 than in other economies. 42:04.809 --> 42:12.079 Then being working class was certainly very true in Europe, 42:12.079 --> 42:15.829 probably less so now, but even during the second half 42:15.826 --> 42:19.786 of the twentieth century in Italy and France there was a 42:19.789 --> 42:22.959 very strong working class consciousness. 42:22.960 --> 42:26.020 You were proud of being working class. 42:26.018 --> 42:26.628 In the U.S. 42:26.632 --> 42:28.642 the term working class hardly exists. 42:28.637 --> 42:29.137 Right? 42:29.139 --> 42:32.059 We are talking about the working people rather than the 42:32.056 --> 42:32.916 working class. 42:32.920 --> 42:37.340 But in Italy or in France there was a very strong identity of 42:37.340 --> 42:41.540 being a working class--very clearly identifiable lifestyle 42:41.541 --> 42:42.501 features. 42:42.500 --> 42:44.760 Not that even, in fact, in the United States 42:44.759 --> 42:47.349 you can't really-- you usually can tell, 42:47.351 --> 42:50.361 I think, with ninety percent certainty, 42:50.360 --> 42:54.860 if you walk into a tavern--right?--who is a manual 42:54.856 --> 42:58.246 worker and who is not a manual worker. 42:58.251 --> 42:59.171 Right? 42:59.170 --> 43:02.540 The way how people behave, the way how people dress, 43:02.536 --> 43:04.446 gives you a very good clue. 43:04.449 --> 43:08.329 And in France or in Italy, to some extent even in the 43:08.331 --> 43:11.481 United States, working class will say, 43:11.483 --> 43:14.503 "Well, it was good enough for me to be 43:14.498 --> 43:15.188 a plumber. 43:15.190 --> 43:18.360 Why on earth my son doesn't want to be a plumber and 43:18.360 --> 43:20.600 continue my business as a plumber? 43:20.599 --> 43:22.629 That's good enough." Right? 43:22.630 --> 43:27.560 If it was good enough for me, should be good enough for my 43:27.559 --> 43:28.079 son. 43:28.079 --> 43:33.249 How he understands social class as distinct from economic class. 43:33.250 --> 43:39.750 You become social class when you will say--well you are in 43:39.753 --> 43:45.803 working class and your daughter is dating a lawyer. 43:45.800 --> 43:48.700 Then you will say, "Can't you find a decent 43:48.704 --> 43:49.944 working class guy? 43:49.940 --> 43:53.200 You want to date with this egghead?" 43:53.199 --> 43:55.789 Again, in the United States it is much less common. 43:55.793 --> 43:56.213 Right? 43:56.210 --> 44:01.080 There is many more marital mobility across class 44:01.077 --> 44:06.877 lines--much less so in Italy or in France, even today. 44:06.880 --> 44:09.980 Anyway, this is social class, but as you can see, 44:09.981 --> 44:14.121 social class in a way bringing back the idea of status groups. 44:14.119 --> 44:16.729 It is a modern version of status group, 44:16.733 --> 44:19.903 what is being constituted as a social class. 44:19.900 --> 44:24.820 because it has a lot to do with lifestyles, values, 44:24.824 --> 44:29.954 culture--right?--and typical patterns of mobility and 44:29.947 --> 44:32.407 aspirations, as such. 44:32.409 --> 44:35.799 Well that's about it. 44:35.800 --> 44:36.980 Thank you very much. 44:36.980 --> 44:42.000