WEBVTT 00:00.780 --> 00:04.860 Prof: So today is Jean Jacques Rousseau-- 00:04.860 --> 00:10.640 I mean, one of the most fascinating people in terms of 00:10.639 --> 00:16.309 his life and his ideas and the way how he reasons. 00:16.309 --> 00:22.299 He is a provocative, a provocateur, 00:22.302 --> 00:30.052 and an extraordinary genius, in more than one ways. 00:30.050 --> 00:35.960 There are few people whom I disagree so strongly than in 00:35.962 --> 00:40.802 many propositions of Jean Jacques Rousseau. 00:40.800 --> 00:48.580 But there are few people who turn my mind on so much than 00:48.584 --> 00:50.674 Jean Jacques. 00:50.670 --> 00:53.280 So who was this character? 00:53.280 --> 00:57.650 Let me just give you a very brief overview. 00:57.650 --> 01:04.660 He was born in Geneva, which was a city-state at that 01:04.658 --> 01:12.608 time--ruled by Calvin for awhile, a Calvinist stronghold. 01:12.610 --> 01:17.740 We will talk about this when it comes to Max Weber and The 01:17.735 --> 01:19.695 Protestant Ethic. 01:19.700 --> 01:25.040 Calvin ruled Geneva with an iron hand. 01:25.040 --> 01:28.910 That's where he was born. 01:28.909 --> 01:31.449 His father was Isaac Rousseau. 01:31.450 --> 01:35.560 He was a watchmaker and a Calvinist. 01:35.560 --> 01:41.080 Well he did run into some trouble. 01:41.080 --> 01:44.000 I don't know exactly what the trouble was. 01:44.000 --> 01:48.920 I think he was in debt, so he jumped the boat and went 01:48.922 --> 01:53.742 to Istanbul, disappeared; we don't know much about him 01:53.738 --> 01:54.808 beyond that. 01:54.810 --> 02:00.850 So at a very early age of ten he was a kind of orphan. 02:00.849 --> 02:06.139 Then in 1728 he moved to France. 02:06.140 --> 02:13.440 And there was a wonderful lady, about ten years his senior, 02:13.437 --> 02:18.467 Mrs. Warens, who was running a home. 02:41.574 --> 02:52.424 to take seats>> 02:52.419 --> 02:55.939 Prof: Anyway, so he met Mrs. Warens, 02:55.937 --> 03:02.597 who was a Roman Catholic, and her mission was to convert 03:02.598 --> 03:08.268 these Calvinists to their proper faith, 03:08.270 --> 03:15.910 Roman Catholicism-- and took young boys into her home. 03:15.908 --> 03:19.938 But who knows, it looks like she had more 03:19.937 --> 03:24.367 interests in people, rather than religion. 03:24.370 --> 03:31.930 So he arrived '28 to Annency. 03:31.933 --> 03:33.763 Right? 03:33.758 --> 03:37.428 Age of 16, a good-looking, nice guy. 03:37.430 --> 03:42.580 Madame Warens is still a younger lady. 03:42.580 --> 03:48.470 Here you can see, you know, Madame Warens and 03:48.473 --> 03:52.763 Jean Jacques, meeting in 1728. 03:52.759 --> 03:56.229 Very romantic stuff, right? 03:56.229 --> 04:05.129 Well and here well another picture. 04:05.129 --> 04:07.999 You know? 04:08.000 --> 04:09.850 Well I don't blame Jean Jacques, 04:09.848 --> 04:11.398 > 04:11.400 --> 04:16.960 at the age of 16, to convert to Roman Catholicism 04:16.958 --> 04:23.208 from the cold Calvinist religion, and meanwhile being a 04:23.209 --> 04:24.719 bit romantic. 04:24.716 --> 04:25.986 Right? 04:25.990 --> 04:31.580 Well Jean Jacques is one of those few people who wrote a 04:31.583 --> 04:35.553 Confession--a very funny book. 04:35.550 --> 04:39.460 He has a sense of self-irony and self-criticism. 04:39.459 --> 04:43.409 Whether this is genuine, or he thought this will be the 04:43.410 --> 04:46.410 way how to sell the book--hard to tell. 04:46.410 --> 04:48.440 But it's worth reading. 04:48.440 --> 04:51.410 It actually was published posthumously. 04:51.410 --> 04:57.210 And he said Madame de Warens shaped his character; 04:57.209 --> 04:59.809 undoubtedly she did. 04:59.810 --> 05:07.230 And this affair--affair, who knows, but it looks like it 05:07.232 --> 05:13.172 was an affair--fascinated people later on. 05:13.170 --> 05:19.160 I think I already cracked this joke in the introductory 05:19.160 --> 05:20.270 lecture. 05:20.269 --> 05:25.079 A wonderful French writer, Stendhal, 05:25.079 --> 05:33.359 in his superb novel, Le Rouge et la Noir, 05:33.360 --> 05:37.800 was inspired by this interesting affair-- 05:37.800 --> 05:44.740 a sixteen -year -old boy and a twenty-eight -year -old woman. 05:44.740 --> 05:50.230 And, in fact, the story of Julien Sorel--it 05:50.230 --> 05:58.330 means Jean Jacques Rousseau--and Madame de Renal--de Warens--is 05:58.334 --> 06:02.654 really the core of the story. 06:02.649 --> 06:08.389 So if you have not read Le Rouge et la Noir, 06:08.389 --> 06:13.439 this is a must for an Ivy League graduate. 06:13.439 --> 06:19.639 You don't want to get a degree from Yale not having read 06:19.641 --> 06:24.041 Stendhal, Le Rouge et la Noir. 06:24.040 --> 06:26.680 It's, of course, in English. 06:26.680 --> 06:29.420 But, you know, enough is enough. 06:29.420 --> 06:37.530 In '42, several years later, Rousseau has now bigger aims 06:37.533 --> 06:41.013 and he moves to Paris. 06:41.009 --> 06:48.269 And he becomes the secretary of Comte de Montaigue who is a 06:48.273 --> 06:52.033 French ambassador to Venice. 06:52.029 --> 06:57.359 And there are a lot of nice things--interesting 06:57.363 --> 07:03.163 things--about Rousseau, but he was not an easy guy, 07:03.163 --> 07:08.153 and somehow he always ran into trouble. 07:08.149 --> 07:13.929 So he ran into trouble in Venice, and in order to avoid 07:13.932 --> 07:18.322 arrest and trouble-- I don't know exactly what he 07:18.315 --> 07:22.365 did, probably something financially not quite correct-- 07:22.370 --> 07:30.280 he had to jump and leave Venice and Comte de Montaigue. 07:30.278 --> 07:34.958 He moves to Paris, and he knows how to find good 07:34.963 --> 07:35.963 friends. 07:35.959 --> 07:41.639 He also will know how to make great enemies from his good 07:41.636 --> 07:42.646 friends. 07:42.649 --> 07:45.329 So he meets Diderot. 07:45.329 --> 07:48.279 And we already know Diderot, and we know already 07:51.930 --> 07:58.440 And he was asked to write an article on music for the 08:02.069 --> 08:04.569 And this is Diderot. 08:16.137 --> 08:20.477 Lavasseur was a maid in this hotel, 08:20.480 --> 08:27.650 and a long-lasting relationship develops between the two which-- 08:27.649 --> 08:30.739 well I already told you, don't worry if you don't marry 08:30.742 --> 08:31.432 instantly. 08:31.430 --> 08:34.560 He was not married instantly either. 08:34.558 --> 08:42.288 It took him some time to decide that this date should actually 08:42.285 --> 08:46.335 culminate in a legal marriage. 08:46.340 --> 08:51.780 She became a companion for all of his life. 08:51.779 --> 08:56.729 Well I would not bet my life that she was, 08:56.734 --> 09:02.534 for the rest of life, the only woman in his life, 09:02.534 --> 09:07.374 but certainly she was his companion. 09:07.370 --> 09:09.060 I don't know about her. 09:09.059 --> 09:12.419 They married in '68. 09:12.418 --> 09:16.088 So you can see it took some time for Rousseau to say, 09:16.085 --> 09:19.745 "Well this is something which should end up in a 09:19.750 --> 09:21.090 marriage." 09:21.090 --> 09:23.610 And here is--okay, here you can see that, 09:26.690 --> 09:31.070 Well I hope you don't mind I show you these pictures; 09:31.070 --> 09:33.270 they don't tell all that much. 09:33.269 --> 09:38.849 Well Jean Jacques, as I said, was an extraordinary 09:38.854 --> 09:39.884 genius. 09:39.879 --> 09:45.339 He is not only a philosopher, not only a social scientist, 09:45.335 --> 09:50.885 not only a scientist--he was writing on science as well--he 09:50.886 --> 09:52.606 was an artist. 09:52.610 --> 09:55.930 And well, you know, anybody can write a novel, 09:55.928 --> 09:56.518 right? 09:56.519 --> 10:01.669 I am sure half of this class considered at one point in your 10:01.669 --> 10:06.649 life that you will write poetry or you will write a novel. 10:06.645 --> 10:07.515 Right? 10:07.519 --> 10:11.119 It's easy; you sit down and you write a 10:11.118 --> 10:11.538 novel. 10:11.539 --> 10:13.769 My life is a novel, right? 10:13.769 --> 10:15.999 Most people say that. 10:16.000 --> 10:21.780 But Jean Jacques wrote an opera. 10:21.778 --> 10:25.898 Probably few of you considered to write an opera. 10:25.902 --> 10:26.592 Right? 10:26.590 --> 10:29.060 That needs skills. Right? 10:29.058 --> 10:33.658 And he did one, Le Devin du Village. 10:33.657 --> 10:35.077 I own a CD. 10:35.080 --> 10:37.560 It's a wonderful opera. 10:37.559 --> 10:40.569 He's a great composer. Right? 10:40.570 --> 10:43.290 Well that's quite unusual. 10:43.288 --> 10:46.408 And, to make it even more interesting, 10:46.408 --> 10:52.898 he was in an intense debate--he was always in an intense debate 10:52.895 --> 10:57.195 with everybody-- but he was in an intense debate 10:57.202 --> 10:58.222 with Rameau. 10:58.220 --> 11:04.880 And those of you who are a little familiar with music, 11:04.878 --> 11:07.138 you know Rameau. 11:07.139 --> 11:14.619 Rameau was the greatest French composer of the eighteenth 11:14.618 --> 11:22.498 century, and they had a big debate because Rousseau believed 11:22.495 --> 11:25.295 in the Italian opera. 11:25.301 --> 11:26.771 Right? 11:26.769 --> 11:35.769 He believed that the melody should have precedence over 11:35.774 --> 11:41.384 harmony, and Rameau wanted to create a 11:41.379 --> 11:48.129 French opera in which, you know, melody is not so 11:48.125 --> 11:53.375 important, and in fact the harmony is more 11:53.379 --> 11:54.649 important. 11:54.649 --> 11:57.899 It was a revolutionary break. 11:57.899 --> 12:03.129 Rameau paves, you know--creates a new space 12:03.129 --> 12:05.619 for the new music. 12:05.620 --> 12:09.810 In some ways he's beginning to pave the way, 12:09.812 --> 12:15.762 what we eventually will know as modern music--an extraordinary 12:15.761 --> 12:17.031 composer. 12:17.028 --> 12:23.218 Well and Rousseau believed in bel canto, 12:23.224 --> 12:24.844 Pavarotti. 12:24.840 --> 12:28.560 I know, of course there was no Pavarotti at that time. 12:28.558 --> 12:31.658 But you know what bel canto is--Ave Maria. 12:31.662 --> 12:32.182 Right? 12:32.178 --> 12:34.878 You create a cry, you can sing it. 12:34.884 --> 12:35.544 Right? 12:35.538 --> 12:42.098 That's what he really believed in, unlike Rameau who was much 12:42.097 --> 12:46.577 more analytical and emphasized harmony. 12:46.580 --> 12:52.420 Interestingly, the person whom I think is the 12:52.421 --> 12:57.201 greatest composer of all history, 12:57.200 --> 13:03.660 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, loved Rousseau, 13:03.658 --> 13:10.118 and he wrote an opera what can be very rarely seen-- 13:10.120 --> 13:15.430 occasionally you can catch it in the Metropolitan Opera of 13:15.433 --> 13:19.133 Arts, once in a decade-- Bastien 13:19.126 --> 13:24.606 und Bastienne, which was actually inspired by 13:24.610 --> 13:27.830 Le Devin du Village. 13:27.830 --> 13:33.640 Go on amazon.com, you can buy Rameau, 13:33.639 --> 13:37.739 you can buy Bastien und Bastienne, 13:37.740 --> 13:40.990 and you can buy Le Devin du Village, 13:40.990 --> 13:44.250 and you can see the differences. 13:44.250 --> 13:47.490 And he, of course, publishes a novel, 13:51.995 --> 13:56.315 which at that time was an influential novel. 13:56.320 --> 13:59.120 I don't think too many people read it today. 13:59.120 --> 14:05.900 Well this is Rameau, and Rameau shadowed modern 14:05.899 --> 14:07.079 music. 14:07.080 --> 14:12.140 Gluck, in particular, follows from Rameau. 14:12.139 --> 14:16.449 In fact, you know, Mozart will be changing in his 14:16.451 --> 14:17.441 lifetime. 14:17.440 --> 14:23.720 We will talk--well I thought--if there is a musician 14:23.717 --> 14:28.147 you can read a little Rameau here. 14:28.149 --> 14:33.799 Interestingly, you know, Mozart did not stick 14:33.803 --> 14:39.333 quite to the Italian opera over his life. 14:47.110 --> 14:52.520 The Magic Flute, is the first German opera. 14:52.519 --> 14:57.209 The earlier Mozart is very much Italian opera. 14:57.210 --> 15:00.800 Later in life, Mozart tried to create German 15:00.796 --> 15:04.876 opera, which has some similarities with the French 15:04.883 --> 15:08.973 music--not quite, because it's more romantic. 15:08.970 --> 15:14.040 Okay, he is also a philosopher, scientist, political 15:14.043 --> 15:19.123 theorist--I also would say sociologist and political 15:19.116 --> 15:20.506 scientist. 15:20.509 --> 15:25.699 The first piece of work is actually science, 15:25.700 --> 15:29.080 art, and study of society. 15:29.080 --> 15:35.120 Then in 1755, he writes a very interesting 15:35.120 --> 15:37.710 book-- if you have spare time, 15:37.705 --> 15:41.185 read it--Discourse on the Origins of Inequality-- 15:41.190 --> 15:45.140 Again, a very provocative book. 15:45.139 --> 15:51.499 In some ways there is some sort of Hobbesian idea behind that. 15:51.500 --> 15:59.130 He said, well it starts with love, but if you are really in 15:59.125 --> 16:03.465 love, well you tend to be jealous. 16:03.465 --> 16:04.775 Right? 16:04.778 --> 16:10.258 If you are deeply in love, passionately in love, 16:10.264 --> 16:17.274 then you don't like that the person who is the object of your 16:17.268 --> 16:22.168 love may have a love in somebody else; 16:22.169 --> 16:24.649 then you are jealous. 16:24.649 --> 16:29.089 And the idea is--this is the origins of inequality; 16:29.090 --> 16:31.450 we are jealous, right? 16:31.450 --> 16:36.360 There is one precious good--to put it with Hobbes-- 16:36.360 --> 16:40.430 we all desire, and if somebody else desires it 16:40.426 --> 16:43.336 as well, and has a shot at it, 16:43.342 --> 16:47.192 to get it, then we become jealous, right? 16:47.190 --> 16:50.120 We want to grab it, we want to monopolize it. 16:50.120 --> 16:54.360 So this is a source of inequality, right? 16:54.360 --> 16:58.470 Well an interesting idea, right? 16:58.470 --> 17:02.400 Have you ever experienced that? 17:02.399 --> 17:07.569 Did you have occasionally a little sense of jealousy in you, 17:07.565 --> 17:11.585 and thinking no, this other one should not have 17:11.593 --> 17:13.523 the one I do have? 17:13.519 --> 17:18.759 I think you probably did. 17:18.759 --> 17:20.499 I did. 17:20.500 --> 17:24.530 Okay. 17:24.528 --> 17:28.298 And then comes the big year: '62. 17:28.298 --> 17:33.688 He publishes two major books in one year, two big scandals: 17:38.250 --> 17:42.590 And I will talk to Social Contract today, 17:44.990 --> 17:49.020 Social Contract is really a culmination of the 17:49.020 --> 17:50.960 contractarian argument. 17:50.960 --> 17:58.800 Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau did some extraordinary important new 17:58.803 --> 18:00.323 innovations. 18:00.320 --> 18:01.460 Right? 18:01.460 --> 18:07.710 As we have seen, in the first contractarian, 18:07.713 --> 18:15.863 Hobbes had a somewhat limited idea of social contract; 18:15.858 --> 18:22.188 probably realistic but not what you necessarily like. 18:22.190 --> 18:27.360 He said a social contract is not something what you concluded 18:27.357 --> 18:29.767 with the authority, right? 18:29.769 --> 18:33.289 Social contract, what you entered by fear, 18:33.290 --> 18:38.100 and social contract which was done previously because you 18:38.102 --> 18:42.142 wanted to have a new contract is binding on you. 18:42.138 --> 18:43.168 Right? 18:43.170 --> 18:51.000 Locke tended to see a social contract as sort of between the 18:51.003 --> 18:55.523 individual and the commonwealth. 18:55.519 --> 18:59.779 This is a nice idea, that you are bound by a 18:59.779 --> 19:01.959 contract you signed. 19:01.960 --> 19:05.760 But, you know, those of you at least who were 19:05.755 --> 19:10.405 born in these United States, never signed a contract to 19:10.413 --> 19:12.833 accept the Constitution. 19:12.829 --> 19:15.729 I am a naturalized citizen. 19:15.730 --> 19:17.990 You can say I signed a contract. 19:17.994 --> 19:18.584 Right? 19:18.578 --> 19:22.188 I had to swear allegiance to the United States. 19:22.190 --> 19:25.310 At that time I was supposed to read the Constitution. 19:25.308 --> 19:28.618 I have not read it from cover to cover. 19:28.618 --> 19:32.548 But anyway, I signed a contract somewhat unseen--you 19:32.551 --> 19:36.641 know?--suspecting what the contract is I'm signing. 19:36.640 --> 19:38.910 But most of you, born in the States, 19:38.913 --> 19:40.473 never signed a contract. 19:40.473 --> 19:41.063 Right? 19:41.058 --> 19:42.788 It's still binding on you. 19:42.792 --> 19:43.262 Right? 19:43.259 --> 19:46.879 Unless you decide to abandon the U.S. 19:46.880 --> 19:50.130 citizenship and become a citizen of North Korea. 19:50.126 --> 19:50.676 Right? 19:50.680 --> 19:54.180 Then you are bound by this social contract. 19:54.180 --> 19:58.830 So that is, you know, the difference between Hobbes 19:58.825 --> 20:01.515 and Locke, as we discussed. 20:01.519 --> 20:04.069 Now Rousseau, as we will see, 20:04.067 --> 20:07.157 adds a new, interesting element. 20:07.160 --> 20:11.670 He said, well, it's not quite the individuals, 20:11.673 --> 20:16.393 and he introduces the notion of general will. 20:16.390 --> 20:22.330 There is a general will which is well above the 20:22.325 --> 20:30.325 individuals--extremely important idea, has a degree of insights 20:30.325 --> 20:32.385 and realism. 20:32.390 --> 20:36.090 It's also a very dangerous idea. 20:36.088 --> 20:40.868 Totalitarian regimes very often advocate it. 20:40.868 --> 20:48.738 General will that you--and I will quote Jean Jacques for you 20:48.736 --> 20:54.056 when he said, "the individuals will have 20:54.058 --> 20:59.968 to be forced to be free"; that follows from the idea of 20:59.967 --> 21:01.277 general will. 21:01.278 --> 21:05.878 Well he's a complex thinker-- liberal on one hand, 21:05.883 --> 21:11.053 a contractarian on the other hand, and paves the road to 21:11.049 --> 21:12.929 totalitarianism. 21:12.930 --> 21:19.070 He was loved by many liberals, and he was loved by many 21:19.067 --> 21:23.747 totalitarians-- like Karl Marx loved him, 21:23.752 --> 21:28.052 like Vladimir Ilyich Lenin loved him, 21:28.049 --> 21:30.379 because of the general will. 21:30.380 --> 21:35.250 But Durkheim loved him too, and he was a liberal. 21:35.250 --> 21:37.980 So there he is. 21:39.990 --> 21:42.730 I already mentioned, any one of you, 21:42.733 --> 21:46.893 and there are probably a few people who will end up in 21:46.890 --> 21:51.360 education, you have to read this book cover to cover. 21:51.358 --> 21:55.928 This is no modern major education theory without the 21:58.348 --> 22:02.578 This is the foundation of modern educational theory. 22:02.578 --> 22:08.798 Okay, he had a big impact: a big impact on the American 22:08.795 --> 22:13.625 Constitution, and the French Revolution. 22:13.630 --> 22:19.890 He's one of the path-breakers on the French Revolution. 22:19.890 --> 22:25.870 He was also the first who advocated popular sovereignty, 22:25.865 --> 22:31.515 the abolishment of the Third Estate, and creating one 22:31.515 --> 22:34.005 popularly elected body. 22:34.013 --> 22:35.213 Right? 22:35.210 --> 22:39.550 Strong conflict with Montesquieu who wanted to have 22:39.546 --> 22:43.356 two chambers, one for the aristocracy and one 22:43.362 --> 22:47.502 for the people; Rousseau wanted to have one. 22:47.500 --> 22:51.890 Universal suffrage, except for women; 22:51.890 --> 22:54.340 well he was a male chauvinist pig in one way. 22:54.338 --> 22:59.268 Well, and as we will see, the idea of general will were 22:59.269 --> 23:04.199 picked up by the radicals of the French Revolution, 23:04.200 --> 23:09.350 the Jacobins, and was picked up by later 23:09.346 --> 23:16.506 Communists of various types, be it Leninists or Maoists. 23:16.509 --> 23:21.759 Well the general will and French radicalism led to 23:21.762 --> 23:23.052 bloodshed. 23:23.048 --> 23:28.948 Robespierre, the major disciple and believer 23:28.948 --> 23:35.668 of general will, his head was also chopped off. 23:35.670 --> 23:39.980 Well, so much about it. 23:39.980 --> 23:43.130 Now Rousseau did not live the French Revolution; 23:43.130 --> 23:45.660 his ideas did, and informed it. 23:45.660 --> 23:51.170 He had to move in '62 in exile because both books created an 23:51.170 --> 23:54.720 outrage, particularly by the church. 23:54.720 --> 23:59.750 First he went back to Geneva, but figured out he doesn't like 23:59.751 --> 24:01.431 Geneva any longer. 24:01.430 --> 24:05.530 So David Hume, the conservative philosopher 24:05.529 --> 24:10.899 who admired his work, invited him to come to England. 24:10.900 --> 24:16.570 And like with everybody else who was his friend, 24:16.573 --> 24:20.923 he had a fall-out with David Hume. 24:20.920 --> 24:24.920 He was really a difficult guy, right? 24:24.920 --> 24:26.800 This is David Hume. 24:26.798 --> 24:32.388 And therefore he left England and he returned to France--lived 24:32.387 --> 24:38.247 for a long time under an assumed name to make sure he doesn't get 24:38.251 --> 24:39.811 into trouble. 24:39.808 --> 24:42.008 Finally, '68, he married 24:47.338 --> 24:51.858 They had several children, and the greatest educational 24:51.864 --> 24:55.554 theorist who tells you how to raise children, 24:55.550 --> 24:59.490 he put all of his children in an orphanage. 24:59.490 --> 25:02.930 He was a real bastard, to put it another way. 25:02.930 --> 25:09.650 And then he was writing his Confessions, 25:09.646 --> 25:14.316 which was published posthumously, 25:14.319 --> 25:19.139 and he died in '78, July 2nd. 25:19.140 --> 25:25.350 So this is the author we will be discussing today, 25:25.349 --> 25:31.179 and we will also be also discussing Tuesday. 25:31.180 --> 25:38.960 And I hope I will have enough time between I get home and 25:38.957 --> 25:46.357 before the limo comes, so I can put this on the 25:46.363 --> 25:54.233 internet, so you can read this on the internet. 25:54.230 --> 26:01.910 This is, if right, the Social Contract. 26:01.910 --> 26:06.550 Yes. 26:06.549 --> 26:11.929 Social Contract, 1782. 26:11.930 --> 26:15.880 And I don't know why, but I like to show you the 26:15.875 --> 26:21.155 first editions-- doesn't take me too much time to find it on the 26:21.164 --> 26:24.444 internet, but occasionally it does. 26:24.440 --> 26:27.970 Okay, so what the Social Contract is all about? 26:27.970 --> 26:34.290 Book I is a description how you move from natural right--from 26:34.287 --> 26:38.707 the state of nature--to political right. 26:38.710 --> 26:45.150 The second book is the sovereign and how the sovereign 26:45.150 --> 26:49.160 should be constructed, created. 26:49.160 --> 26:53.760 This is an issue which Locke did not pay much attention to. 26:53.763 --> 26:54.403 Right? 26:54.400 --> 27:00.640 We will see, you know, Rousseau himself 27:00.644 --> 27:05.254 likes elected, selected aristocracy, 27:05.248 --> 27:10.148 but he's beginning to think about universal suffrage and a 27:10.154 --> 27:13.604 proper constitution of the sovereign. 27:13.598 --> 27:19.198 Then he has a big section on government, a section on ancient 27:19.202 --> 27:21.632 Rome and civil religion. 27:21.630 --> 27:26.700 I will talk--well I don't have much time--I will try to talk 27:26.696 --> 27:29.356 about civil religion as well. 27:29.359 --> 27:31.039 So what are the major themes? 27:31.038 --> 27:35.838 One question is what is legitimate rule? 27:35.838 --> 27:41.658 And he said rule is only legitimate when it is arrived at 27:41.660 --> 27:42.700 consent. 27:42.700 --> 27:49.120 But, he said, justice has to be diluted 27:49.115 --> 27:55.525 because general will has to prevail. 27:55.529 --> 28:00.229 I will have to talk a little about justice being diluted. 28:00.230 --> 28:05.560 The problem is there is no universal justice--what you can 28:05.559 --> 28:09.019 arrive at from the individual will. 28:09.019 --> 28:15.309 There is a general will, and a conception of the common 28:15.307 --> 28:18.667 good, and the individual-- whether 28:18.669 --> 28:21.879 the individual is done justice to,-- 28:21.880 --> 28:27.090 it has to be diluted, it has to be restricted by the 28:27.086 --> 28:32.136 demands of the collective will, of the collective good. 28:32.140 --> 28:34.440 Now this is a provocative statement. 28:34.440 --> 28:38.040 It certainly has a kernel of truth. 28:38.038 --> 28:43.458 It's also a very dangerous argument because it opens up the 28:43.462 --> 28:47.912 rule for a totalitarian state, which will tell you, 28:47.914 --> 28:50.854 "Oh, you think this is your interest? 28:50.848 --> 28:54.088 What you think is your interest is not really your interest. 28:54.088 --> 28:58.358 Me, the sovereign, knows what is in your interest, 28:58.357 --> 29:01.317 and I will force you to be free. 29:01.318 --> 29:05.368 I will force you to understand what is in your interest." 29:05.368 --> 29:10.118 That is a bit of a tricky argument which has been abused 29:10.116 --> 29:11.236 in history. 29:11.240 --> 29:15.900 That's what the notion diluted refers to. 29:15.900 --> 29:21.680 Now he advocates for popular sovereignty and the need for 29:21.678 --> 29:23.018 convention. 29:23.019 --> 29:27.559 Well the argument is the individual express only 29:27.560 --> 29:33.800 individual interests, and therefore the general will 29:33.797 --> 29:39.717 is not the will of-- not simply the sum total of 29:39.720 --> 29:41.840 individual wills. 29:41.838 --> 29:46.368 He is a methodological collectivist, 29:46.373 --> 29:49.873 as I already pointed out. 29:49.868 --> 29:52.908 And then it comes to the lawgiver. 29:52.910 --> 29:59.040 Well it is the lawgiver who actually can inspire what he 29:59.038 --> 30:02.158 calls amour-propre. 30:02.160 --> 30:07.630 You need a lawgiver--he sees himself as a lawgiver-- 30:07.630 --> 30:13.920 who actually will be able to tell you why your selfishness is 30:13.916 --> 30:17.596 no good-- why the love of your country 30:17.596 --> 30:21.386 and the community is the right thing to go. 30:21.386 --> 30:22.106 Okay. 30:22.108 --> 30:27.778 And a good government means a popularly elected legislature. 30:27.778 --> 30:32.268 And the executive is still by an aristocracy, 30:32.272 --> 30:38.302 by the wise man--that's what he really means by aristocracy, 30:38.298 --> 30:43.098 an intellectual aristocracy who is elected. 30:43.098 --> 30:46.728 Well we have somewhat this notion, that people in 30:46.728 --> 30:49.448 government should be smart, right? 30:49.450 --> 30:53.670 And we have a bit of concern with--you know, 30:53.670 --> 30:57.050 in the past there were some presidents in the United States, 30:57.048 --> 31:01.308 some people in the United States thought they are not all 31:01.307 --> 31:02.137 that smart. 31:02.144 --> 31:02.834 Right? 31:02.828 --> 31:07.358 I don't want to name names, but you can think probably of 31:07.364 --> 31:12.064 some--why some people thought they are a little on the dumb 31:12.060 --> 31:12.790 side. 31:12.788 --> 31:18.818 And they did not earn very much respect by those who think they 31:18.815 --> 31:20.365 are not smart. 31:20.369 --> 31:21.899 Anyway, that's it. 31:21.900 --> 31:24.810 So legitimate rule. 31:24.808 --> 31:29.268 Well legitimate rule cannot be based on natural title, 31:29.266 --> 31:30.776 not aristocracy. 31:30.778 --> 31:35.498 It has to be authorized by consent. 31:35.500 --> 31:41.020 Well I'll leave the family issue, that's--family, 31:41.017 --> 31:45.497 he said, is the only natural society. 31:45.500 --> 31:52.090 But he said even the family does not come simply from 31:52.088 --> 31:53.228 nature. 31:53.230 --> 31:56.900 There is a social contract in the family, 31:56.900 --> 32:02.810 and in fact when you grow up--when you are not a small 32:02.813 --> 32:07.133 child anymore-- then you will realize how much 32:07.126 --> 32:08.816 of a contract it is. 32:08.818 --> 32:13.638 Eventually--I hope there is nobody in this room, 32:13.640 --> 32:19.080 but I suspect there are probably a very few who at one 32:19.077 --> 32:24.747 point thought enough was enough; you know, my mother and father 32:24.752 --> 32:27.802 is really a pain, and therefore I don't want to 32:27.795 --> 32:30.565 do much with them--will break the contract, 32:30.571 --> 32:31.301 right? 32:31.298 --> 32:34.338 It does happen to some people in their life. 32:34.338 --> 32:37.238 As a father, I hope it would never happen, 32:37.240 --> 32:40.140 but unfortunately it occasionally does. 32:40.140 --> 32:44.660 When people are teenagers, that's when you're beginning to 32:44.661 --> 32:49.501 think about the natural right of the family as a contract, 32:49.500 --> 32:53.140 and you're beginning to enter--or some people begin to 32:53.141 --> 32:57.211 enter-- some kind of a new relationship 32:57.208 --> 33:03.328 in the parents and try to convert the natural dependence 33:03.325 --> 33:09.105 on parents on a contractual relationship saying, 33:09.108 --> 33:10.638 "Well how come? 33:10.637 --> 33:15.217 What do you mean I have to be back home by eleven p.m.?" 33:15.221 --> 33:15.911 Right? 33:15.910 --> 33:17.910 You remember that? 33:17.910 --> 33:20.310 Anybody ever questioned that? 33:20.309 --> 33:20.889 Right? 33:20.890 --> 33:22.780 Tried to negotiate it out. 33:22.778 --> 33:24.888 "Oh not eleven." 33:24.894 --> 33:27.014 You want it to be one a.m. 33:27.009 --> 33:27.659 Right? 33:27.660 --> 33:32.400 "I am already sixteen or seventeen." 33:32.400 --> 33:34.030 You know? 33:34.029 --> 33:37.309 That's when you are converting natural right. 33:37.308 --> 33:42.818 Okay, now there is a transition from state of nature to the 33:42.816 --> 33:45.096 nature of civil society. 33:45.095 --> 33:45.945 Right? 33:45.950 --> 33:54.090 Well there is the transition from the state of nature to 33:54.088 --> 34:01.348 civil society is necessary-- this is a remarkable change, 34:01.352 --> 34:05.572 right?-- where you substitute justice 34:05.567 --> 34:11.967 for instinct of contact-- with morality which was lacking 34:11.974 --> 34:15.744 previously in the state of nature. 34:15.739 --> 34:21.169 And in civil society, you know, we deprive ourselves 34:21.168 --> 34:27.448 from some of the advantages, what we enjoyed in the state of 34:27.449 --> 34:28.619 nature. 34:28.619 --> 34:31.899 Nevertheless, this is a great progress, 34:31.896 --> 34:34.136 what has to be taken on. 34:37.460 --> 34:46.690 Well, the second theme is about the question of diluted justice. 34:46.690 --> 34:51.040 And he said, you know, the order to admit 34:51.043 --> 34:55.073 justice among us has to be diluted. 34:55.070 --> 34:59.970 And diluted means, you know, our individual sense 34:59.974 --> 35:05.394 of justice has to be overruled by the general will. 35:05.389 --> 35:12.469 And a sovereign needs no guarantor, and the individuals 35:12.467 --> 35:20.267 will have to be constrained; otherwise we are in trouble. 35:20.268 --> 35:29.638 And here is the argument why the individual will have to be 35:29.637 --> 35:31.897 constrained. 35:31.900 --> 35:37.410 Individuals cannot just follow their self-interests, 35:37.411 --> 35:42.061 because the general will have to prevail. 35:42.059 --> 35:46.759 The common good has to overrule the selfish individual 35:46.762 --> 35:52.092 interests--a very different type of argument from the British 35:52.085 --> 35:53.235 liberals. 35:53.239 --> 35:58.299 Then he argues for popular sovereignty, and he prefers to 35:58.297 --> 35:59.017 do so. 35:59.018 --> 36:05.118 And this is his single most important contribution. 36:05.119 --> 36:10.609 This has to be based on a convention, and a convention has 36:10.606 --> 36:15.126 to be arrived at by the rule of the majority. 36:15.130 --> 36:21.470 There must be an assembly of people and--this is also a very 36:21.467 --> 36:26.947 radical, controversial argument--that they must pool 36:26.945 --> 36:28.875 the resources. 36:28.880 --> 36:34.160 It is almost a Communist idea of having common property of 36:34.163 --> 36:38.523 major resources--a very problematic argument. 36:38.518 --> 36:44.028 And he also makes this interesting claim that in the 36:44.030 --> 36:47.920 state of nature we are not equal-- 36:47.920 --> 36:51.270 that's a very different view from Hobbes-- 36:51.268 --> 36:55.798 but we are being made equal by convention, 36:55.800 --> 37:00.350 what we do with each other. 37:00.349 --> 37:05.339 And the problem is this is really--does it lead to 37:05.336 --> 37:07.166 totalitarianism? 37:07.170 --> 37:13.450 He's also advocating for public possessions as a superior form 37:13.447 --> 37:18.487 of possession--state possession over resources. 37:18.489 --> 37:22.809 A very problematic argument--again paves the 37:22.806 --> 37:28.226 foundation towards Marxism and Communist ideologies. 37:28.230 --> 37:35.220 And well many of the--you know, all the citations will be on 37:35.222 --> 37:37.002 the internet. 37:37.000 --> 37:41.660 So you can read it much more carefully than you can do it 37:41.659 --> 37:42.159 now. 37:42.159 --> 37:46.729 Well then we arrive at the idea of the general will. 37:46.730 --> 37:51.760 Individual--if this is something, you believe in Adam 37:51.757 --> 37:56.127 Smith or you believe in Locke, you will be very 37:56.126 --> 38:00.096 disturbed--individuals express only private interest. 38:00.099 --> 38:03.259 So there must be a public interest. 38:03.260 --> 38:08.550 And the general will is sort of--it's unclear where it is 38:08.550 --> 38:13.940 coming from, but it is certainly coming over and above the 38:13.938 --> 38:15.448 individuals. 38:15.449 --> 38:21.489 And this is the general will, which is represented in what we 38:21.485 --> 38:23.895 call the commonwealth. 38:23.900 --> 38:28.920 The federal authority, the federal interest expresses 38:28.923 --> 38:30.763 the general will. 38:30.760 --> 38:33.110 It is not the will of all. 38:33.110 --> 38:37.470 It is the will which serves the interests of everybody, 38:37.472 --> 38:40.382 rather than the view of everybody. 38:40.380 --> 38:44.340 Well, as I said, you know, there is an element 38:44.342 --> 38:45.842 of truth to it. 38:45.840 --> 38:49.690 In discussion sections we can talk about this. 38:49.690 --> 38:53.910 The class will be divided whether this is acceptable or 38:53.911 --> 38:54.381 not. 38:54.380 --> 38:59.690 But those of you who believe in methodological collectivism will 38:59.692 --> 39:04.332 have to take very seriously the idea of general will. 39:04.329 --> 39:07.699 And now comes the question of the lawgivers, 39:07.702 --> 39:10.842 and this is a very important argument. 39:10.840 --> 39:16.160 Well we are only free when we obey the law. 39:16.157 --> 39:17.167 Right? 39:17.170 --> 39:21.280 That freedom is under self-imposed law. 39:21.280 --> 39:31.740 Hegel said that freedom is--you are free when you recognize 39:31.744 --> 39:42.214 necessity, and therefore you will have to go by the law. 39:42.210 --> 39:46.490 And this will inspire amour-propre, 39:46.494 --> 39:51.414 the love of the country, rather than amour de 39:51.405 --> 39:54.745 soi, which is self-love. 39:54.750 --> 40:01.230 He makes this distinction where--I'm afraid I will have to 40:01.233 --> 40:06.093 come back to this Tuesday; I will have to leave it 40:06.090 --> 40:10.450 now--the distinction between amour-propre and amour 40:10.447 --> 40:13.857 de soi is a very important distinction, 40:13.860 --> 40:17.430 and I'll have to elaborate on this Tuesday. 40:17.429 --> 40:22.449 So I will come back to Social Contract, 40:27.019 --> 40:32.999