WEBVTT

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Prof: Then let's go on
to Thomas Hobbes.

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And I do something what
probably not everybody does in a

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kind of history of ideas course:
I give you an overview of the

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individual whom you were reading
from,

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and around some sense of the
historic times they lived in.

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Occasionally I get negative
comments in my course

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evaluations for this.

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People want just to talk about
the text, what they have to

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know.

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There are some people who like
it, to see well this is how

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Thomas Hobbes looked like,
and who the character was.

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So therefore I still will do
this.

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I think what I will try to do
is to go very fast through the

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sort of individual's life and
history;

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sort of to have my cake and eat
it, right?

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To give those of you who are
interested in the historical

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context, at least briefly;
and those who are not

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particularly interested,
not to bore them with it.

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But you can go back to the
internet and get even more

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detail.

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Okay, so we'll start this with
Thomas Hobbes.

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Whether Foundations of Modern
Social Thought should start with

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Hobbes or not,
that's a question.

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In some other courses I've
taught, occasionally I started

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with Thomas Bacon;
I will talk about him very

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briefly later on.

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But in some ways arguably
Thomas Hobbes is the first who

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laid the foundations of modern
social science.

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He was a genuine scientist,
and a formidable one,

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and an extremely controversial
figure, addressing a number of

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very important issues.

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We are all still very divided,
particularly on human nature.

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Are we by nature good,
or are we by nature evil?

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I think probably half of the
crowd here would go one way;

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the other half would go another
way.

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And I hope to be able to
discuss that in the discussion

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sections.

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Anyway there are a number of
very important issues that

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Thomas Hobbes framed,
and which have a great deal of

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impact on later social
scientists--

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of course, on Locke,
but also on Adam Smith,

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on Nietzsche,
on Freud, on Max Weber and

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others.

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Okay, so this is Thomas Hobbes,
and let me just very briefly

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talk about his life.

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I mentioned that--in the
introductory lecture--he was

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born in 1588 in Westport.

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I also mentioned that his
father was a vicar and he had

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actually a fistfight with a
clergyman in,

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of all places,
in a cemetery which was

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absolutely no-no by that time.

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So he had to skip and disappear
and leave young Thomas behind in

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the care of an uncle who was
actually a glover,

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produced gloves.

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And this all happened under the
rule of Queen Elizabeth.

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I will talk about this a little
later.

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In 1602, he went to Oxford,
to Magdalene Hall,

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and then in '08 he graduated,
and he became a tutor of

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William Cavendish II who became
at one point a very important

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politician.

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In 1610, he went to France and
Italy.

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It is very important because he
met Galileo and he was

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absolutely turned on by Galileo
and physics of his time.

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I already mentioned that Hobbes
cannot be classified in any of

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the disciplines.

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He even cannot be classified as
a social scientist.

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He was as much a
mathematician--I gather a pretty

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bad mathematician--but also he
made important contributions to

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sciences, particularly to
optics.

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Well, he had a close
association with a person whom

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you may have heard of,
Francis Bacon.

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And who was Francis Bacon,
and what is his influence?

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Francis Bacon was a philosopher
who rejected the Aristotelian

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logic and system,
which basically was a

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speculative system--
started out from some major

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assumptions and through
deductions developed his

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philosophical system.

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As I said, occasionally I've
taught this course by starting

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with Francis Bacon because
Bacon, in some ways,

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is the Founding Father of
modern sciences.

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Because he said every
scientific investigation should

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start with induction,
from sensual observation,

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and what you cannot observe,
you should not assume it does

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exist.

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Right?

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Therefore he advocated a
methodology which was exactly

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the opposite of the Aristotelian
methodology, which was

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deductive.

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He advocated induction.

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Now he was very closely
affiliated with William

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Cavendish and had a great deal
of impact on Hobbes initially,

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though eventually Hobbes
changed actually his mind.

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And he went to Europe and,
among other things,

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he spent time--he knew where to
spend time.

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He went to Paris,
and he began to investigate

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natural sciences,
Galileo and Descartes,

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in particular.

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Descartes was a great deal of
importance for Hobbes.

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From Galileo he learned an
alternative to Bacon's inductive

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method.

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Galileo offered a methodology
that, by and large,

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social scientists today who
believe in normal social science

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subscribe to.

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Namely that was the
methodology, what Galileo called

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the resolutive-compositive
method.

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It basically meant that you
start with deduction.

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Right?

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You have some initial
hypotheses.

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Then you move to observation,
sensual observation,

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and from the sensual
observation you make inductions.

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And you make that and you test
your hypotheses.

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That's how it we would say it
today.

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And this is what Bacon learned
from Galileo and adapted his

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methodology.

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philosophers of his times and of
all times.

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Descartes ascribed to something
what I call dualism.

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Right?

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Dualism really meant that he
separated the soul and body from

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each other,
and Hobbes rejected this idea

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of dualism because he suggested
that--

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in fact, they were engaged in a
big debate on optics,

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what we do see.

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And he, Hobbes,
was advocating that there must

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be a real object whose movement
we see, what we actually can

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see.

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So he rejected the dualism.

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And then he wrote--I mentioned
very briefly--

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his trilogy:
De Corpore, this is

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about the human body,
De Homine,

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about man, and finally De
Cive, about society.

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I see this as formidable and
something which appeals a great

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deal to social scientists today.

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Right?

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To try to develop a theory of
society which begins actually

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with biology,
with biological processes,

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and build it up gradually from
biology to understanding of the

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social,
of the individual,

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and from the individual to
understand society.

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That's highly controversial.

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There are many social
scientists who reject it.

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But today there are many social
scientists who are greatly

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attracted to this,
and we see a re-emergence today

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of sciences and social
scientists.

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Well Hobbes entered politics as
a Royalist when William

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Cavendish entered politics.

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And, in fact,
Hobbes translated,

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I also mentioned,
Thucydides, basically because

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Thucydides expressed some
skepticism about the democracy

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in Athens.

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And he was greatly skeptical
about democracy and believed the

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need for a strong central
authority.

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Well these were very troubled
times, troubled times and

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religious conflicts.

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I'll skip this one because I
know you are all very familiar

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with British history.

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But it all started with Henry
VIII who had a very troubled

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marital relationship.

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Right?

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He had three wives;
divorced one,

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executed the second one in
search for a son from one of his

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wives.

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But in the process of
divorcing, he split from the

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Roman Catholic Church,
and that's when Church of

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England emerged,
and that's how England became

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Protestant of a sort.

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Well again, as I said,
I'll skip this one and go on.

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Well this is the eldest
daughter of Henry VIII,

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Mary I, called Bloody Mary.

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She inherited the throne.

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She was trying to establish
Roman Catholicism but had to

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resign.

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There was too much resistance
against it so he had to resign

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and give the throne to his
younger sister,

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Elizabeth.

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And this is Queen Elizabeth.

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And Queen Elizabeth was at the
time of Puritanism under a great

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deal of pressure of Puritans who
wanted to get rid of Catholics

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altogether from government in
England.

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This became a very important
issue later on.

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And New Haven has its Puritan
connections.

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Anybody is from Davenport
College?

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Nobody is from Davenport.

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>

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Oh my goodness.

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So no real Puritans around here.

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Well that's a shame.

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Anyway, this was Reverend John
Davenport.

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He was a Puritan who settled in
New Haven, with his followers,

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in 1638.

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And already,
of course, in I think 1703,

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the Puritans created this
institution,

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and they were basically running
this institution until the late

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nineteenth century-- not
anymore.

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Okay.

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Now there will be a great deal
of conflicts between--yeah,

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Mary was called the Virgin
Queen.

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Well whether she was a virgin
or not is unclear,

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but she clearly had a lot of
very close friendships with

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various men in her life.

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But she never married,
and never gave birth to a

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child.

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She was actually a very good
queen, a smart,

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good queen by the challenges of
the time.

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But she was the last one,
and died without a son.

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And then the Crown went over to
the Stuarts, and they were a

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total disaster.

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James I was already a disaster,
and Charles I was a real

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disaster.

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And they were in a collision
course with parliament,

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and there was a constant war in
England--civil war--culminating

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in '42.

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And finally Charles I was
executed in '49,

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and Oliver Cromwell came to
power.

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Now--well here I give you a
picture of the execution of

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Charles I.

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If you don't believe it,
you can see it.

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Well Hobbes got into some
trouble at that time because he

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was too close to the Royalists,
and he had to flee England in

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1640,
ahead of time,

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and he went to live in Paris.

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He was very close there to the
Royalist exiles,

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and in '51 he completed his
major book,

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Leviathan--what we will
be talking about in a minute.

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Well Leviathan became an
extremely controversial book.

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It was very controversial in
his times--became actually a big

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hot topic in the nineteenth
century.

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And it's a very hot topic in
the last thirty or forty years

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because a lot of economists and
political scientists who are

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interested in rational choice
theories discovered in Thomas

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Hobbes the first rational choice
theorist.

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Actually he's a wonderfully
lucid mind,

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and if you read the text,
and you know enough

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mathematics,
you could do a lot of his

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propositions in mathematical
equations.

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What else an economist wants to
do?

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Right?

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It must be true if you can put
it into an equation.

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Right?

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Well that's what certainly
Thomas Hobbes is available to

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do, because of extremely
lucidity of his mind.

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Well it was therefore a
controversial book--also for the

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Royalists.

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Because in '51,
Hobbes--and we will talk about

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this in great detail--
was considering that probably

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people should be allowed to
transfer their loyalty to a new

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authority which offers safety.

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Right?

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And that's what the Royalists
did not want to hear--that

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Cromwell actually can become a
legitimate ruler.

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And that's what,
in a way, the book

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Leviathan foreshadows.

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So he better have to skip out
of Paris and go back to London.

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This is the First Edition of
Leviathan,

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'51.

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This is about the idea that
people are by nature evil,

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and we need an all powerful
sovereign to avoid the state of

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war of everyone against everyone
else--

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a powerful proposition.

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Again, I would think probably
half of the people in this

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classroom, when really think
hard about it,

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do believe Hobbes's argument;
half of them would be violently

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opposed to the argument.

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Right?

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So it's a very nice topic,
to have heated discussions in

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the discussion sections.

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Leviathan is a
sea-monster: the state or the

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sovereign.

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We need to keep order as such.

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Okay.

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There were a great deal of
controversies around him.

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He actually was publishing
rather neutral stuff,

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only attacking
universities--which is always a

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good thing to do,
right?

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But when in 1660 the monarchy
was restored,

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and Charles II,
the son of Charles I became

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king,
Hobbes was invited back to the

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court,
and it looked like he will be

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just fine right now as a
Royalist.

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Not so, because in '66 there
was a fire in London,

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and because of this fire--some
people believed that this fire

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was the revenge of God because
of the sinful New York-- not New

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York--London.

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Right?

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>

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And they were therefore trying
to find the guilty one.

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And who was that?

17:47.108 --> 17:50.558
Of course, Thomas Hobbes with
his materialism.

17:50.557 --> 17:51.167
Right?

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No soul.

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So how is then eternal life
possible?

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This must be an atheist.

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His books should be burned,
if not himself.

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So they did not burn his book
and himself, but he certainly

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was out of grace and died in
'79.

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He was greatly admired in
Continental Europe,

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but was very controversial in
England.

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And well, if you don't believe
there was a fire in London,

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here is the proof.

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Right?

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>

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There is the great fire of
London, '66, which it looked

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like Los Angeles to me.

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Right?

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Well okay.

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Well it killed 3000 people,
right?

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The fire brigade was not as
effective as today is in

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Southern California.

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Okay?

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Now that's about the person and
the times.

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I think extremely for my--as
far as I'm concerned--extremely

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important to understand this,
the work, if you know the times

18:57.185 --> 18:59.015
when he lived in.

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All right, so now let me go on
and talk to Leviathan.

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>

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And here we go.

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This is the First Edition of
Leviathan,

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which came out in 1651,
in two big volumes.

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Each one was 500 pages long.

19:39.279 --> 19:41.939
Well this is the structure of
the book.

19:41.940 --> 19:49.530
The first part is on man,
and the first few chapters are

19:49.527 --> 19:52.697
about the mechanisms.

19:52.700 --> 19:56.520
Because of Galileo,
Hobbes was obsessed with the

19:56.518 --> 19:57.898
idea of motion.

19:57.900 --> 20:02.360
So he described the biological
motions, what moves man:

20:02.364 --> 20:05.264
senses, imagination,
speech, reason,

20:05.257 --> 20:07.487
and so on and so forth.

20:07.490 --> 20:11.140
Then chapter six is a fun
chapter.

20:11.140 --> 20:14.690
It is about appetites,
desires, aversions and fears,

20:14.685 --> 20:17.255
and the theory of voluntary
action.

20:17.259 --> 20:18.519
I will talk about this.

20:18.519 --> 20:22.929
This is really very insightful,
very important--a very great

20:22.934 --> 20:27.424
deal of impact on contemporary
times, and I hope you can also

20:27.424 --> 20:29.674
relate to it individually.

20:29.670 --> 20:35.750
And then chapter seven to
eleven is the relationship

20:35.749 --> 20:38.729
between people as such.

20:38.730 --> 20:43.640
And then finally the state of
nature and the two laws of

20:43.644 --> 20:44.454
nature.

20:44.450 --> 20:48.330
We will have to talk about this
in greater detail.

20:48.328 --> 20:53.078
So Part II is about
commonwealth.

20:53.078 --> 20:59.158
It's about really the first
theory of politics--the rights

20:59.161 --> 21:04.391
and duties of the governments
and the subjects.

21:04.390 --> 21:07.880
There are some very interesting
arguments here;

21:07.880 --> 21:11.580
that actually the sovereigns
also have duties,

21:11.582 --> 21:13.642
not only simply rights.

21:13.640 --> 21:20.590
And then parts III and IV offer
some theological justification

21:20.589 --> 21:22.299
what he does.

21:22.298 --> 21:25.918
Part III and IV,
I think very rarely read,

21:25.917 --> 21:29.887
or at least I see very few
citations to it.

21:29.890 --> 21:33.190
So what are the major themes of
the book?

21:33.190 --> 21:36.210
First, about the theory of
human nature.

21:36.210 --> 21:41.690
The second one is the
relationship between nature and

21:41.688 --> 21:45.058
the theory of social contract.

21:45.058 --> 21:49.318
Hobbes is really the first of
the contractarians,

21:49.323 --> 21:54.473
who advocates that what brings
society together is a social

21:54.474 --> 21:55.634
contract.

21:55.630 --> 21:58.820
If you want to understand
society, you have to understand

21:58.816 --> 22:01.146
that we have contracts with each
other.

22:01.150 --> 22:03.430
And then finally the theory of
the sovereign.

22:03.425 --> 22:03.835
Right?

22:03.838 --> 22:08.078
The major desire,
the essence of Hobbes's work,

22:08.082 --> 22:12.052
is to try to find an
identifiable sovereign.

22:12.047 --> 22:12.967
Right?

22:12.970 --> 22:16.910
He lived in turbulent times
when you did not know who the

22:16.913 --> 22:17.973
sovereign is.

22:17.970 --> 22:19.570
Is this the king?

22:19.569 --> 22:21.409
Is this the landlord?

22:21.410 --> 22:23.340
Are these the burghers?

22:23.339 --> 22:24.979
Is this the parliament?

22:24.980 --> 22:27.730
Who on earth is the sovereign?

22:27.730 --> 22:32.090
He wanted to find one
identifiable sovereign--we can

22:32.094 --> 22:35.774
all agree, this is the proper
source of law.

22:35.773 --> 22:36.633
Right?

22:36.630 --> 22:39.760
That's what he was obsessed
with.

22:39.756 --> 22:40.436
Okay.

22:40.440 --> 22:43.280
So let me then move on and
about human nature.

22:43.279 --> 22:46.339
What are the themes here?

22:46.338 --> 22:53.108
Well one important argument is
that man will deliberate between

22:53.106 --> 22:58.666
appetites and aversions,
and as a result it will act

22:58.673 --> 23:00.423
voluntarily.

23:00.420 --> 23:06.570
Well that's a fascinating
issue--an issue we cannot get

23:06.573 --> 23:09.083
rid out of our hair.

23:09.078 --> 23:13.638
Well when I was your age,
we always were vehemently

23:13.641 --> 23:18.021
debating the question:
Do we have free will or we

23:18.019 --> 23:19.939
don't have free will?

23:19.935 --> 23:20.935
Right?

23:20.940 --> 23:23.380
Our action is over-determined.

23:23.380 --> 23:28.590
This is exactly the question
what Hobbes is talking about and

23:28.588 --> 23:33.888
develops the idea of voluntary
action which is kind of halfway

23:33.885 --> 23:38.485
between absolute free will and
complete determination.

23:38.488 --> 23:39.528
Right?

23:39.529 --> 23:45.529
The idea is that we are driven
by appetite, by desires.

23:45.529 --> 23:50.459
We will talk in this course
later on about Sigmund Freud who

23:50.464 --> 23:52.564
was talking about drives.

23:52.557 --> 23:53.307
Right?

23:53.308 --> 23:56.688
There are drives which makes us
move.

23:56.690 --> 24:02.470
These are what Hobbes called
appetite, a few centuries before

24:02.468 --> 24:04.008
Sigmund Freud.

24:04.009 --> 24:07.969
But then he said we also have
aversions, we have fears.

24:07.970 --> 24:12.060
There are things what we want,
but we have fears that we won't

24:12.061 --> 24:16.801
be able to achieve what we want,
and therefore we have to

24:16.798 --> 24:21.968
somehow negotiate out between
our desires, appetites,

24:21.973 --> 24:24.963
and our fears or aversions.

24:24.960 --> 24:28.500
And what comes out is voluntary
action.

24:28.500 --> 24:30.810
We have a choice. Right?

24:30.808 --> 24:34.788
We have to measure up what the
price of our action will be,

24:34.788 --> 24:39.088
and then we decide whether it
is worth to pay this price or it

24:39.092 --> 24:41.422
is not worth to pay this price.

24:41.420 --> 24:44.600
So I see somebody whom I desire
a great deal,

24:44.601 --> 24:48.001
I thought it would be a great
partner for me.

24:48.000 --> 24:51.580
But in order to approach that
person and to say,

24:51.575 --> 24:54.005
"Can I have a date?"

24:54.009 --> 24:57.929
it has risks because it may
say, "Go to hell."

24:57.929 --> 24:58.499
Right?

24:58.500 --> 24:59.500
>

24:59.500 --> 25:00.760
And I don't want to be
rejected.

25:00.762 --> 25:01.092
Right?

25:01.088 --> 25:04.288
I have fears that I will be
rejected.

25:04.288 --> 25:06.868
So I will be measuring up,
right?

25:06.868 --> 25:10.668
And some of you,
if you are in such a situation,

25:10.670 --> 25:13.930
if you sense that the answer
will be no,

25:13.930 --> 25:17.520
you don't place a phone call,
and you will never get that

25:17.515 --> 25:17.955
person.

25:17.962 --> 25:18.542
Right?

25:18.539 --> 25:24.119
The fear overrules the appetite.

25:24.118 --> 25:26.158
Or others will say,
"Heck."

25:26.156 --> 25:26.776
You know?

25:26.778 --> 25:29.878
"If they say no,
then I will try a second time,

25:29.875 --> 25:33.025
I will try a third time,
and if it's no a third time,

25:33.034 --> 25:34.494
then I'll give up."

25:34.491 --> 25:35.161
Right?

25:35.160 --> 25:37.830
Okay, so this is voluntary
action.

25:37.832 --> 25:38.482
Right?

25:38.480 --> 25:40.620
This is freedom. Right?

25:40.618 --> 25:44.638
You are free to decide whether
you want to try it again.

25:44.644 --> 25:45.234
Right?

25:45.230 --> 25:49.660
Whether you want to achieve
your appetites.

25:49.660 --> 25:53.680
And then the second point is we
will seek power.

25:53.680 --> 25:58.670
The essence of human nature is
that we are striving for power.

25:58.670 --> 26:01.740
Again an issue,
a very good issue to discuss at

26:01.740 --> 26:03.410
the discussion section.

26:03.410 --> 26:07.190
Again, I think half of the
class will probably agree with

26:07.194 --> 26:11.324
Hobbes, that people are actually
trying to dominate others.

26:11.318 --> 26:14.328
Others will say we are much
more benevolent.

26:14.328 --> 26:18.208
We are actually nice people,
we don't want to dominate.

26:18.210 --> 26:21.360
Well we will see his argument
for it.

26:21.358 --> 26:25.018
Well he said actually--and the
last point is,

26:25.017 --> 26:29.257
you know--if we want to
survive, we will need an all

26:29.257 --> 26:31.167
powerful sovereign.

26:31.170 --> 26:34.500
So voluntary action.

26:34.500 --> 26:37.350
He actually said there are two
kinds of motions.

26:37.348 --> 26:40.288
One motion is what he calls
vital motions,

26:40.291 --> 26:43.161
and these are stuff like,
you know, food,

26:43.163 --> 26:46.253
that we want to have food or
something.

26:46.250 --> 26:49.670
And there is what he
calls--well it sounds strange

26:49.665 --> 26:51.335
today--animal motions.

26:51.338 --> 26:56.268
But this is what I think is
better called voluntary motions

26:56.273 --> 27:01.723
which actually has something to
do with appetites or desires,

27:01.720 --> 27:05.310
or aversions,
and how to deal with this.

27:05.308 --> 27:08.708
So let me just speak about
appetites and aversions.

27:08.710 --> 27:12.150
Again, I don't want to read the
text.

27:12.147 --> 27:15.967
I will put it on the internet
for you.

27:15.970 --> 27:19.350
It just describes what I have
said, that we all have

27:19.346 --> 27:22.256
appetites, we have desires,
we have needs.

27:22.259 --> 27:26.649
And in order to satisfy our
needs, it always has costs,

27:26.645 --> 27:31.675
and therefore we have to figure
out whether it's worth the cost

27:31.682 --> 27:33.962
for us to satisfy that need.

27:33.955 --> 27:34.845
Right?

27:34.848 --> 27:37.728
And therefore we have a certain
degree of freedom.

27:37.730 --> 27:42.770
We can't do whatever we want to
do, because we may not have the

27:42.768 --> 27:44.798
resources to afford it.

27:44.798 --> 27:49.398
Or we want to have many things,
and then we will have to

27:49.400 --> 27:54.420
prioritize what we want to have
more and spend more on it.

27:54.420 --> 27:58.000
As you can hear,
Hobbes is very close to what

27:58.000 --> 28:00.690
later on becomes the
utilitarians.

28:00.685 --> 28:01.495
Right?

28:01.500 --> 28:06.680
Very close to what Adam Smith
will argue in his economic

28:06.676 --> 28:11.756
theory, or what John Stuart
Mills will represent in his

28:11.760 --> 28:13.550
utilitarianism.

28:13.548 --> 28:17.128
Or, for that sake,
what most economists today

28:17.134 --> 28:19.324
believe,
who call themselves

28:19.317 --> 28:22.907
neoclassical economists,
or who identify themselves as

28:22.911 --> 28:26.031
"rat"
choice, or rational choice;

28:26.028 --> 28:28.658
economists or political
scientists or sociologists,

28:28.657 --> 28:32.067
for that sake;
there are some sociologists who

28:32.073 --> 28:34.983
also subscribe to rational
choice.

28:34.980 --> 28:38.810
All right, this is also very
lovely: deliberation and the

28:38.810 --> 28:39.290
will.

28:39.288 --> 28:42.018
And he said,
well when we have desires and

28:42.020 --> 28:45.010
we have aversions,
that's when we're actually

28:45.009 --> 28:49.849
beginning to figure out--
we deliberate what on earth is

28:49.852 --> 28:51.372
worse for us.

28:51.368 --> 28:56.228
And the end of this
deliberation we have a will.

28:56.230 --> 28:59.890
We decide I go for it,
I want that date.

28:59.888 --> 29:00.638
Right?

29:00.640 --> 29:06.100
Or we decide I don't want it,
because the costs are too high.

29:06.102 --> 29:06.742
Okay?

29:06.740 --> 29:09.280
And this is what we call the
will.

29:09.282 --> 29:09.902
Right?

29:09.900 --> 29:13.720
Your will will be that you
decide I go for it,

29:13.720 --> 29:16.900
or you decide,
no, that's not worth for me,

29:16.900 --> 29:20.860
it would be silly--I make a
clawn out of me,

29:20.859 --> 29:22.129
I just don't do it. Right?

29:22.130 --> 29:23.810
That's the will.

29:23.808 --> 29:25.698
Well about power.

29:25.700 --> 29:29.300
The power is unending. Right?

29:29.298 --> 29:33.718
He said there is a general
inclination for us to seek

29:33.717 --> 29:37.027
power, our influence on other
people.

29:37.029 --> 29:40.339
And he said there is nothing
evil about it.

29:40.338 --> 29:45.508
It is necessary because if we
want to survive we will have to

29:45.507 --> 29:48.777
try to exercise influence on
others.

29:48.779 --> 29:51.309
We have to seek power as such.

29:51.308 --> 29:56.708
An extremely important idea,
which foreshadows especially

29:56.707 --> 30:02.487
Nietzsche and Max Weber who
comes up later in this course.

30:02.490 --> 30:06.260
Well then here comes a very
interesting argument about

30:06.258 --> 30:08.888
equality; a very exciting
argument.

30:08.890 --> 30:14.090
He is one of the very first
philosophers who claims that we

30:14.086 --> 30:15.966
are all born equal.

30:15.970 --> 30:21.770
Now for you this is of course
obvious, but it was not obvious

30:21.768 --> 30:26.408
in 1651 that people--nobles and
serfs, slaves and

30:26.406 --> 30:30.076
slaveholders--were all born
equal.

30:30.078 --> 30:33.398
And he said,
in fact--also extremely

30:33.396 --> 30:37.426
important--
that we are equal actually in

30:37.433 --> 30:42.953
strengths because even the
weakest person has the capacity

30:42.948 --> 30:45.458
to kill the strongest one.

30:45.461 --> 30:46.431
Right?

30:46.430 --> 30:50.530
Even David can kill Goliath.

30:50.526 --> 30:51.546
Right?

30:51.548 --> 30:54.958
But he said the same goes
intellectually;

30:54.960 --> 30:59.800
in fact, intellectually we are
even more equal than by physical

30:59.796 --> 31:00.416
power.

31:00.420 --> 31:04.350
So that sounds wonderful,
and you probably all agree with

31:04.348 --> 31:04.698
it.

31:04.700 --> 31:07.070
But then he makes a very
controversial point,

31:07.068 --> 31:10.388
and probably there are some
people in this room who agree

31:10.387 --> 31:12.527
with him,
but others probably will

31:12.534 --> 31:13.614
disagree with it.

31:13.608 --> 31:19.738
Namely, he said what comes from
this equality is this unending

31:19.736 --> 31:23.426
fight;
that because we desire the same

31:23.432 --> 31:25.592
thing--
and he operates with the

31:25.593 --> 31:28.673
scarcity assumption,
that what is desirable is

31:28.673 --> 31:31.893
actually scarce-- that we'll
fight each other.

31:31.886 --> 31:32.526
Right?

31:32.528 --> 31:36.858
And we can't fight each other
because we are equal--because we

31:36.859 --> 31:40.409
can kill each other,
we can outsmart each other.

31:40.410 --> 31:42.990
This is a very unusual
argument.

31:42.992 --> 31:43.662
Right?

31:43.660 --> 31:47.330
He is a very ironic guy. Right?

31:47.328 --> 31:51.248
He always says things that you
may not want to hear.

31:51.253 --> 31:51.873
Right?

31:51.868 --> 31:55.648
And this is something who
believes in equality do not want

31:55.654 --> 31:57.384
to hear;
that, in fact,

31:57.378 --> 32:01.998
equality can be interpreted as
the reason for social conflict,

32:01.996 --> 32:05.626
rather than the solution for
social conflict.

32:05.630 --> 32:07.290
That is his argument.

32:07.288 --> 32:10.538
Very interesting,
very unusual--right?--and

32:10.539 --> 32:15.029
again, probably the closest to
Nietzsche as we will see.

32:15.028 --> 32:18.918
Well then we have--this is,
I won't read it;

32:18.920 --> 32:22.290
save it, this is the page you
want to print,

32:22.291 --> 32:26.841
because for the rest of your
life, if you ever want to cite

32:26.840 --> 32:29.430
Hobbes, this is the citation.

32:29.430 --> 32:36.380
Namely that we will therefore
be in a war of everyone against

32:36.375 --> 32:40.885
everyone else,
for the above reasons.

32:40.890 --> 32:44.330
Now about the question of
social contract.

32:44.328 --> 32:47.488
Well he operates with this idea
of state of Nature.

32:47.490 --> 32:49.530
And we will talk a lot about
this.

32:49.529 --> 32:53.739
Because among most of the
social theories--Founding

32:53.740 --> 32:57.530
Fathers of social
theories--there is a debate,

32:57.531 --> 33:01.071
what is the original nature of
humans?

33:01.068 --> 33:04.828
And it's controversial whether
this is a useful concept at all,

33:04.826 --> 33:06.156
the state of nature.

33:06.160 --> 33:08.480
But he did believe in this.

33:08.480 --> 33:15.820
Well there are really two basic
laws of nature.

33:15.818 --> 33:21.698
One law of nature is that you
are forbidden what is harmful to

33:21.696 --> 33:22.076
you.

33:22.082 --> 33:22.952
Right?

33:22.950 --> 33:26.000
You have to pursue
self-interest.

33:26.000 --> 33:29.600
Here again you see the rational
choice theory speaking.

33:29.596 --> 33:30.126
Right?

33:30.130 --> 33:34.220
People are self-interested,
and this is the law of nature

33:34.219 --> 33:36.629
that we should be
self-interested.

33:36.628 --> 33:37.358
Right?

33:37.358 --> 33:40.828
We have to do everything in
order to preserve our life.

33:40.828 --> 33:44.898
But there is a second law of
nature, he argues,

33:44.902 --> 33:50.532
and this requires that we--
what you would not do--yeah,

33:50.529 --> 33:56.869
not to do others what you would
not want them to do to you.

33:56.865 --> 33:57.845
Right?

33:57.848 --> 34:00.608
This is--again,
you may want to save this

34:00.609 --> 34:01.369
citation.

34:01.368 --> 34:05.028
A very important
citation--foreshadows major

34:05.034 --> 34:08.314
theories of ethics,
which come many,

34:08.306 --> 34:12.406
many years or decades or
centuries after him,

34:12.409 --> 34:22.609
particularly Emanuel Kant and
his categorical imperative.

34:22.605 --> 34:23.875
Okay.

34:23.880 --> 34:28.180
Well in the state of nature if
there are no restraints,

34:28.179 --> 34:30.329
there is no civilization.

34:30.329 --> 34:34.619
That's a very interesting idea,
that pressure limiting the

34:34.617 --> 34:36.947
state of nature is necessary.

34:36.949 --> 34:41.479
This is again foreshadows
absolutely Sigmund Freud and his

34:41.481 --> 34:45.811
theory of civilization;
that civilization comes out of

34:45.813 --> 34:49.883
the repression of drives,
rather than satisfaction of

34:49.878 --> 34:50.658
drives.

34:50.659 --> 34:55.489
If whatever you always need is
immediately satisfied,

34:55.490 --> 34:58.000
there is no civilization.

34:58.000 --> 35:02.210
Civilization comes from
sufferings, from suppressed

35:02.208 --> 35:03.048
desires.

35:03.050 --> 35:07.600
That's when you go back and you
create great pieces of art or

35:07.603 --> 35:12.163
you become a great scientist
because you suppress your sexual

35:12.157 --> 35:13.527
and other desires.

35:13.525 --> 35:14.355
Right?

35:14.360 --> 35:20.270
It's always from suffering the
great products of humankind are

35:20.273 --> 35:21.443
coming from.

35:21.436 --> 35:22.306
Right?

35:22.309 --> 35:25.469
That's what he's saying,
and that's of course what

35:25.474 --> 35:27.094
Sigmund Freud will say.

35:27.090 --> 35:29.530
Okay, there are there are the
two laws of nature.

35:29.530 --> 35:31.850
And again, I don't want to
elaborate on it;

35:31.846 --> 35:33.166
this is quite obvious.

35:33.170 --> 35:36.840
He said there is the elementary
law of nature,

35:36.844 --> 35:40.604
the first right,
that we have to do whatever is

35:40.601 --> 35:43.381
necessary for self-protection.

35:43.380 --> 35:48.740
And the other one is that we
actually should consider others,

35:48.742 --> 35:50.712
what others will do.

35:50.710 --> 35:53.370
Well, and then the contract.

35:53.369 --> 36:01.219
Well what follows from the
Second Law of Nature is that we

36:01.219 --> 36:07.969
put our rights aside and
transfer it to others.

36:07.969 --> 36:14.969
Well this transfer of rights,
there is some reciprocity in

36:14.965 --> 36:15.575
it.

36:15.579 --> 36:19.369
We give up some rights,
and we get something in

36:19.373 --> 36:22.923
exchange--protection or safety
or something,

36:22.920 --> 36:23.910
as such.

36:23.909 --> 36:28.139
And when we transfer this right
to somebody else,

36:28.137 --> 36:33.157
this is what is called the
covenant or social contract.

36:33.159 --> 36:37.029
As far as I can tell,
this is the first formulation

36:37.030 --> 36:39.740
of the theory of social
contract.

36:39.739 --> 36:46.349
It's not quite the theory of
social contract that we will

36:46.349 --> 36:50.479
read from Locke or from
Rousseau.

36:50.480 --> 36:56.420
Because he said two,
again, controversial comments.

36:56.420 --> 37:01.290
One, that, in fact,
a contract we entered by fear

37:01.289 --> 37:03.419
is also obligatory.

37:03.420 --> 37:08.460
Just because we were forced
into a contract out of fear does

37:08.458 --> 37:13.748
not mean that we can walk out of
this contract whenever we want

37:13.753 --> 37:14.013
to.

37:14.010 --> 37:14.950
Right?

37:14.949 --> 37:17.269
So it's very much status quo.

37:17.268 --> 37:18.928
He's a conservative guy.

37:18.934 --> 37:21.924
I think it has to be
understand, he's deeply

37:21.918 --> 37:23.028
conservative.

37:23.030 --> 37:28.100
And then he also said that in
fact a former contract makes

37:28.103 --> 37:30.243
void a later contract.

37:30.239 --> 37:33.479
So there is no divorce,
to put it this way.

37:33.481 --> 37:34.101
Right?

37:34.099 --> 37:38.249
Once you swear,
you know, that well I'll stay

37:38.248 --> 37:41.928
with you until we live,
that's about it.

37:41.925 --> 37:42.865
Right?

37:42.869 --> 37:47.629
There is no new contract which
voids it.

37:47.630 --> 37:52.650
Now very briefly about the
power of the sovereign.

37:52.650 --> 37:56.170
Its power is to produce safety
to the people.

37:56.170 --> 37:56.810
Right?

37:56.809 --> 37:58.869
He lives in unsafe times.

37:58.869 --> 38:01.939
So he wants safer-- safety.

38:01.940 --> 38:06.460
But obedience is only due to
the extent the sovereign can

38:06.461 --> 38:10.781
deliver this safety,
and if it cannot--why Charles I

38:10.784 --> 38:16.294
couldn't--
well you could withdraw your

38:16.286 --> 38:21.736
obedience, your loyalty from it.

38:21.739 --> 38:29.409
Okay, now what is important in
his time, to find out who the

38:29.409 --> 38:31.359
sovereign is.

38:31.360 --> 38:36.800
And the sovereign actually can
be--and I just point out two

38:36.797 --> 38:41.857
words from this citation-- can
be transferred on one

38:41.860 --> 38:45.340
man,
the king, or upon one

38:45.335 --> 38:47.305
assembly of man.

38:47.309 --> 38:49.259
That's, I think,
extremely important.

38:49.260 --> 38:54.060
Though he was very strongly in
favor of absolutism,

38:54.063 --> 38:58.963
he did consider that the
sovereign can be a properly

38:58.961 --> 39:01.461
assembled body of man.

39:01.460 --> 39:05.770
But how they will be properly
assembled, he doesn't have the

39:05.768 --> 39:09.058
faintest idea,
or doesn't have the guts to say

39:09.056 --> 39:09.276
it.

39:09.275 --> 39:10.075
Right?

39:10.079 --> 39:12.799
It will become much more clear
in Locke,

39:12.800 --> 39:16.690
and particularly in Rousseau,
where the sovereign is,

39:16.690 --> 39:20.510
and it becomes,
of course, crystal clear in the

39:20.512 --> 39:23.452
American Constitution,
which starts,

39:23.449 --> 39:25.169
"We the people."

39:25.170 --> 39:25.700
Right?

39:25.699 --> 39:27.819
That's where the sovereign is.

39:27.820 --> 39:31.230
In Hobbes's time,
it was not quite we the

39:31.231 --> 39:36.151
people, but he did consider
that it may not be the royalty,

39:36.152 --> 39:36.872
the king.

39:36.867 --> 39:37.737
Right?

39:37.739 --> 39:42.159
Now the sovereign does have
duties.

39:42.159 --> 39:51.219
The office of the sovereign has
to procure safety of the people.

39:51.219 --> 39:56.279
And he said--he adds to this;
extremely important--that it is

39:56.277 --> 39:58.297
not bare preservation.

39:58.300 --> 40:03.210
It has to give more than just
survival, as such.

40:03.210 --> 40:06.820
And therefore you can expect
for the sovereign to deliver

40:06.818 --> 40:10.678
this, and if the sovereign does
not deliver, you can withdraw

40:10.684 --> 40:11.784
your loyalty.

40:11.780 --> 40:16.300
So even though he is a theorist
of Absolutism,

40:16.300 --> 40:20.780
he does see the need and
possibility that you withdraw

40:20.784 --> 40:25.104
your loyalty and you transfer it
to a good king,

40:25.099 --> 40:30.819
to a good sovereign, as such.

40:30.820 --> 40:34.240
Well the question is also what
are the good laws?

40:34.239 --> 40:38.249
People say good laws are the
laws which are good for the

40:38.253 --> 40:39.133
sovereign.

40:39.130 --> 40:42.770
And he said--and this is
extremely important,

40:42.766 --> 40:47.806
I highlighted it--it is not so,
not true, that good laws serve

40:47.807 --> 40:49.707
only the sovereign.

40:49.710 --> 40:54.450
The good laws should serve the
people.

40:54.449 --> 40:57.189
Well, and this is the end of it.

40:57.190 --> 41:01.220
What are his contributions and
what are his shortcomings?

41:01.219 --> 41:05.459
Well his emphasis is on peace
and order.

41:05.460 --> 41:06.330
Right?

41:06.329 --> 41:11.499
But what he does not consider,
that the sovereign might abuse

41:11.496 --> 41:12.526
his power.

41:12.530 --> 41:16.080
And this will be the big
criticism of Hobbes by later

41:16.079 --> 41:18.209
theorists;
particularly by Locke.

41:18.213 --> 41:20.123
We will set it already
Wednesday.

41:20.121 --> 41:20.661
Right?

41:20.659 --> 41:26.489
Locke is primary considered by
the possibility that the

41:26.492 --> 41:29.952
sovereign may abuse its power.

41:29.949 --> 41:34.269
Well, and then he actually does
not develop, as a result,

41:34.268 --> 41:37.738
any theory how power can be
held in checks.

41:37.739 --> 41:40.689
There is no theory of checks
and balances.

41:40.690 --> 41:45.140
There is one in Hobbes,
and even one more developed in

41:45.143 --> 41:46.323
Montesquieu.

41:46.320 --> 41:50.260
And the American Constitution
does not come from Hobbes,

41:50.264 --> 41:53.494
but it comes from Locke,
and particularly from

41:53.492 --> 41:54.642
Montesquieu.

41:54.639 --> 41:59.599
Montesquieu is the one which
defined that checks and balances

41:59.597 --> 42:03.067
which entered the American
Constitution.

42:03.070 --> 42:07.710
Well he was an apologetical
theorist of an enlightened

42:07.708 --> 42:11.208
absolutism--not any absolutism,
right?

42:11.210 --> 42:17.700
He was against real monsters,
as I already demonstrated it.

42:17.699 --> 42:20.909
As a result,
he was not acceptable to the

42:20.911 --> 42:25.971
monarchs because he put too much
limitations on their powers;

42:25.969 --> 42:30.349
but he was not acceptable to
the emergent bourgeois class

42:30.353 --> 42:34.583
because it attributed too much
power to the monarch.

42:34.579 --> 42:38.299
And therefore nobody really
liked Hobbes,

42:38.302 --> 42:42.492
but nobody liked--and you may
not like him.

42:42.489 --> 42:46.849
What is impossible is to ignore
him;

42:46.849 --> 42:49.339
you have to listen to him.

42:49.340 --> 42:55.340
Well see you Wednesday and
Thursday in discussion sections.

42:55.340 --> 43:00.000