WEBVTT 00:12.590 --> 00:12.800 Professor Paul Bloom: Okay. 00:12.800 --> 00:15.060 The last class we talked about the brain. 00:15.060 --> 00:17.870 Now we're going to talk a little bit about some 00:17.866 --> 00:21.686 foundations. So today and Monday we're going 00:21.693 --> 00:27.643 to talk about two very big ideas and these ideas are associated 00:27.641 --> 00:30.041 with Sigmund Freud and B. 00:30.039 --> 00:33.109 F. Skinner and are psychoanalysis 00:33.109 --> 00:36.999 and behaviorism. And I want to talk about 00:36.996 --> 00:40.546 psychoanalysis today and behaviorism next week. 00:40.550 --> 00:44.720 Now, one of these things--One of the things that makes these 00:44.715 --> 00:47.605 theories so interesting is their scope. 00:47.610 --> 00:51.210 Most of the work we're going to talk about in this class--Most 00:51.206 --> 00:52.736 of the ideas are narrow. 00:52.740 --> 00:56.300 So, we're going to talk about somebody's idea about racial 00:56.296 --> 01:00.036 prejudice but that's not a theory of language acquisition. 01:00.039 --> 01:04.749 We'll talk about theories of schizophrenia but they're not 01:04.746 --> 01:08.046 explanations of sexual attractiveness. 01:08.049 --> 01:12.779 Most theories are specialized theories but these two views are 01:12.781 --> 01:15.761 grand theories. They're theories of everything, 01:15.758 --> 01:18.378 encompassing just about everything that matters, 01:18.379 --> 01:20.689 day-to-day life, child development, 01:20.689 --> 01:22.659 mental illness, religion, war, 01:22.658 --> 01:24.758 love. Freud and Skinner had 01:24.764 --> 01:26.904 explanations of all of these. 01:26.900 --> 01:29.640 Now, this is not a history course. 01:29.640 --> 01:32.630 I have zero interest in describing historical figures in 01:32.627 --> 01:36.047 psychology just for the sake of telling you about the history of 01:36.049 --> 01:38.769 the field. What I want to tell you about 01:38.772 --> 01:42.702 though is--I want to talk about these ideas because so much 01:42.698 --> 01:45.758 rests on them and, even more importantly, 01:45.761 --> 01:49.721 a lot of these ideas have critical influence on how we 01:49.715 --> 01:51.725 think about the present. 01:51.730 --> 01:55.470 01:55.470 --> 01:57.010 And that's there. 01:57.010 --> 02:01.200 Now, for better or worse, we live in a world profoundly 02:01.198 --> 02:03.368 affected by Sigmund Freud. 02:03.370 --> 02:06.890 If I had to ask you to choose a--no, name a famous 02:06.887 --> 02:10.047 psychologist, the answer of most of you would 02:10.046 --> 02:12.376 be Freud. He's the most famous 02:12.378 --> 02:16.358 psychologist ever and he's had a profound influence on the 02:16.363 --> 02:19.023 twentieth and twenty-first century. 02:19.020 --> 02:23.310 Some biographical information: He was born in the 1850s. 02:23.310 --> 02:26.840 He spent most of his life in Vienna, Austria, 02:26.836 --> 02:31.326 but he died in London and he escaped to London soon after 02:31.325 --> 02:35.725 retreating there at the beginning of World War II as the 02:35.733 --> 02:39.183 Nazis began to occupy where he lived. 02:39.180 --> 02:43.380 He's one of the most famous scholars ever but he's not known 02:43.378 --> 02:45.298 for any single discovery. 02:45.300 --> 02:49.260 Instead, he's known for the development of an encompassing 02:49.263 --> 02:52.393 theory of mind, one that he developed over the 02:52.391 --> 02:54.131 span of many decades. 02:54.129 --> 02:57.609 He was in his time extremely well known, a celebrity 02:57.610 --> 03:01.160 recognized on the street, and throughout his life. 03:01.159 --> 03:04.539 He was a man of extraordinary energy and productivity, 03:04.541 --> 03:07.861 in part because he was a very serious cocaine addict, 03:07.859 --> 03:09.709 but also just in general. 03:09.710 --> 03:11.890 He was just a high-energy sort of person. 03:11.889 --> 03:16.139 He was up for the Nobel Prize in medicine and in literature; 03:16.140 --> 03:19.150 didn't get either one of them; didn't get the prize in 03:19.147 --> 03:22.437 medicine because Albert Einstein--Everybody loves Albert 03:22.441 --> 03:24.561 Einstein. Well, Albert Einstein really 03:24.560 --> 03:27.260 wrote a letter because they asked for opinions of other 03:27.259 --> 03:29.279 Nobel Prizes. He wrote a letter saying, 03:29.279 --> 03:30.839 "Don't give the prize to Freud. 03:30.840 --> 03:32.730 He doesn't deserve a Nobel Prize. 03:32.730 --> 03:34.440 He's just a psychologist." 03:34.440 --> 03:39.220 Well, yeah. Okay. 03:39.220 --> 03:43.280 While he's almost universally acclaimed as a profoundly 03:43.278 --> 03:47.258 important intellectual figure, he's also the object of 03:47.261 --> 03:49.141 considerable dislike. 03:49.139 --> 03:51.699 This is in part because of his character. 03:51.699 --> 03:53.889 He was not a very nice man in many ways. 03:53.889 --> 03:57.199 He was deeply ambitious to the cause of promoting 03:57.197 --> 04:00.297 psychoanalysis, to the cause of presenting his 04:00.298 --> 04:04.448 view and defending it, and he was often dishonest, 04:04.450 --> 04:08.910 extremely brutal to his friends, and terrible to his 04:08.908 --> 04:11.248 enemies. He was an interesting character. 04:11.250 --> 04:16.000 My favorite Freud story was as he was leaving Europe during the 04:15.998 --> 04:19.408 rise of the Nazis, as he was ready to go to 04:19.410 --> 04:22.470 England from, I think, either Germany or 04:22.466 --> 04:26.616 Austria, he had to sign a letter from the Gestapo. 04:26.620 --> 04:30.770 Gestapo agents intercepted him and demanded he sign a letter 04:30.771 --> 04:34.991 saying that at no point had he been threatened or harassed by 04:34.994 --> 04:38.154 the Gestapo. So he signs the letter and then 04:38.149 --> 04:41.679 he writes underneath it, "The Gestapo has not harmed me 04:41.683 --> 04:44.683 in any way. In fact, I highly recommend the 04:44.683 --> 04:46.233 Gestapo to everybody." 04:46.230 --> 04:50.330 It's--He had a certain aggression to him. 04:50.329 --> 04:54.609 He was also--He's also disliked, often hated, 04:54.611 --> 04:56.851 because of his views. 04:56.850 --> 05:00.400 He was seen as a sexual renegade out to destroy the 05:00.395 --> 05:04.645 conception of people as good and rational and pure beings. 05:04.649 --> 05:08.089 And when the Nazis rose to power in the 1930s he was 05:08.085 --> 05:11.915 identified as a Jew who was devoted to destroying the most 05:11.924 --> 05:15.094 sacred notions of Christianity and to many, 05:15.089 --> 05:19.259 to some extent, many people see him this way. 05:19.259 --> 05:23.439 And to some extent, this accusation has some truth 05:23.437 --> 05:26.547 to it. Freud made claims about people 05:26.554 --> 05:29.234 that many of us, maybe most of us, 05:29.231 --> 05:31.261 would rather not know. 05:31.260 --> 05:33.430 Well, okay. What did he say? 05:33.430 --> 05:37.290 Well, if you ask somebody who doesn't like Freud what he said, 05:37.288 --> 05:41.018 they'll describe some of the stupider things he said and, 05:41.019 --> 05:45.629 in fact, Freud said a lot of things, some of which were not 05:45.628 --> 05:47.978 very rational. For instance, 05:47.982 --> 05:52.152 he's well known for his account of phallic symbols, 05:52.147 --> 05:56.897 arguing certain architectural monuments are subconsciously 05:56.895 --> 06:00.305 developed as penile representations. 06:00.310 --> 06:03.350 And related to this, he developed the notorious 06:03.350 --> 06:04.870 theory of penis envy. 06:04.870 --> 06:08.590 And penis envy is an account of a developmental state that every 06:08.585 --> 06:10.995 one of you who is female has gone through, 06:11.003 --> 06:12.363 according to Freud. 06:12.360 --> 06:15.950 And the idea is that you discovered at some point in your 06:15.952 --> 06:18.392 development that you lacked a penis. 06:18.389 --> 06:21.529 This is not--This is a catastrophe. 06:21.529 --> 06:25.659 And so, each of you inferred at that point that you had been 06:25.660 --> 06:29.070 castrated. You had once had a penis but 06:29.071 --> 06:32.011 somebody had taken it from you. 06:32.009 --> 06:36.409 You then turn to your father and love your father because 06:36.409 --> 06:40.099 your father has a penis, so he's a sort of penis 06:40.101 --> 06:43.461 substitute. You reject your mother, 06:43.457 --> 06:47.617 who's equally unworthy due to her penis lack, 06:47.621 --> 06:52.261 and that shapes your psychosexual development. 06:52.259 --> 06:55.009 Now, if that's the sort of thing you know about Freud, 06:55.013 --> 06:57.973 you are not going to have a very high opinion of him or of 06:57.974 --> 07:00.864 his work, but at the core of Freud's 07:00.860 --> 07:04.180 declamation, the more interesting ideas, 07:04.175 --> 07:09.015 is a set of claims of a man's intellectual importance. 07:09.020 --> 07:10.750 And the two main ones are this. 07:10.750 --> 07:14.930 The two main ones involve the existence of an unconscious, 07:14.927 --> 07:18.647 unconscious motivation, and the notion of unconscious 07:18.651 --> 07:22.891 dynamics or unconscious conflict which lead to mental illnesses, 07:22.889 --> 07:26.069 dreams, slips of the tongue and so on. 07:26.069 --> 07:30.849 The first idea – the idea of unconscious motivation – 07:30.846 --> 07:36.216 involves rejecting the claim that you know what you're doing. 07:36.220 --> 07:39.670 So, suppose you fall in love with somebody and you decide you 07:39.667 --> 07:42.877 want to marry them and then somebody was asked to ask you 07:42.884 --> 07:45.014 why and you'd say something like, 07:45.009 --> 07:48.049 "Well, I'm ready to get married this stage of my life; 07:48.050 --> 07:50.260 I really love the person; the person is smart and 07:50.264 --> 07:52.954 attractive; I want to have kids" whatever. 07:52.950 --> 07:56.610 And maybe this is true. 07:56.610 --> 08:00.820 But a Freudian might say that even if this is your honest 08:00.817 --> 08:04.947 answer – you're not lying to anybody else –still, 08:04.949 --> 08:08.669 there are desires and motivations that govern your 08:08.666 --> 08:11.696 behavior that you may not be aware of. 08:11.699 --> 08:14.979 So, in fact, you might want to marry John 08:14.981 --> 08:19.821 because he reminds you of your father or because you want to 08:19.822 --> 08:23.352 get back at somebody for betraying you. 08:23.350 --> 08:26.000 If somebody was to tell you this, you'd say, 08:25.999 --> 08:29.819 "That's total nonsense," but that wouldn't deter a Freudian. 08:29.819 --> 08:32.489 The Freudian would say that these processes are unconscious 08:32.493 --> 08:34.893 so of course you just don't know what's happening. 08:34.889 --> 08:39.659 So, the radical idea here is you might not know what--why you 08:39.656 --> 08:44.106 do what you do and this is something we accept for things 08:44.105 --> 08:46.245 like visual perception. 08:46.250 --> 08:49.290 We accept that you look around the world and you get sensations 08:49.285 --> 08:51.725 and you figure out there is a car, there is a tree, 08:51.732 --> 08:52.812 there is a person. 08:52.809 --> 08:55.989 And you're just unconscious of how this happens but it's 08:55.990 --> 08:58.820 unpleasant and kind of frightening that this could 08:58.823 --> 09:01.753 happen, that this could apply to things 09:01.752 --> 09:06.262 like why you're now studying at Yale, why you feel the way you 09:06.263 --> 09:10.283 do towards your friends, towards your family. 09:10.279 --> 09:14.259 Now, the marriage case is extreme but Freud gives a lot of 09:14.261 --> 09:18.661 simpler examples where this sort of unconscious motivation might 09:18.662 --> 09:21.312 play a role. So, have you ever liked 09:21.305 --> 09:24.285 somebody or disliked them and not known why? 09:24.289 --> 09:27.949 Have you ever found yourself in a situation where you're doing 09:27.950 --> 09:31.610 something or you're arguing for something or making a decision 09:31.610 --> 09:34.490 for reasons that you can't fully articulate? 09:34.490 --> 09:37.730 Have you ever forgotten somebody's name at exactly the 09:37.726 --> 09:39.886 wrong time? Have you ever called out the 09:39.894 --> 09:41.714 wrong name in the throes of passion? 09:41.710 --> 09:45.410 This is all the Freudian unconscious. 09:45.409 --> 09:48.119 The idea is that we do these things--these things are 09:48.124 --> 09:51.574 explained in terms of cognitive systems that we're not aware of. 09:51.570 --> 09:55.520 Now, all of this would be fine if your unconscious was a 09:55.521 --> 09:59.651 reasonable, rational computer, if your unconscious was really 09:59.651 --> 10:02.461 smart and looking out for your best interest. 10:02.460 --> 10:05.580 But, according to Freud, that's not the way it works. 10:05.580 --> 10:08.430 According to Freud, there are three distinct 10:08.425 --> 10:12.055 processes going on in your head and these are in violent 10:12.064 --> 10:13.524 internal conflict. 10:13.519 --> 10:17.309 And the way you act and the way you think are products, 10:17.308 --> 10:20.678 not of a singular rational being, but of a set of 10:20.675 --> 10:22.495 conflicting creatures. 10:22.500 --> 10:28.170 And these three parts are the id, the ego, and the superego 10:28.167 --> 10:31.487 and they emerge developmentally. 10:31.490 --> 10:35.560 The id, according to Freud, is present at birth. 10:35.559 --> 10:37.869 It's the animal part of the self. 10:37.870 --> 10:40.670 It wants to eat, drink, pee, poop, 10:40.666 --> 10:44.136 get warm, and have sexual satisfaction. 10:44.140 --> 10:47.250 It is outrageously stupid. 10:47.250 --> 10:50.830 It works on what Freud called, "The Pleasure Principle." 10:50.830 --> 10:53.770 It wants pleasure and it wants it now. 10:53.769 --> 10:58.969 And that's, according to Freud, how a human begins – pure id. 10:58.970 --> 11:02.510 Freud had this wonderful phrase, "polymorphous 11:02.509 --> 11:06.049 perversity," this pure desire for pleasure. 11:06.049 --> 11:08.809 Now, unfortunately, life doesn't work like that. 11:08.809 --> 11:13.389 What you want isn't always what you get and this leads to a set 11:13.388 --> 11:17.818 of reactions to cope with the fact that pleasure isn't always 11:17.818 --> 11:22.248 there when you want it either by planning how to satisfy your 11:22.249 --> 11:25.719 desires or planning how to suppress them. 11:25.720 --> 11:29.250 And this system is known as the ego, or the self. 11:29.250 --> 11:33.820 And it works on the "Reality Principle." 11:33.820 --> 11:37.860 And it works on the principle of trying to figure out how to 11:37.861 --> 11:42.241 make your way through the world, how to satisfy your pleasures 11:42.236 --> 11:45.266 or, in some cases, how to give up on them. 11:45.269 --> 11:49.489 And the ego – the emergence of the ego for Freud--symbolizes 11:49.486 --> 11:51.556 the origin of consciousness. 11:51.559 --> 11:55.839 Finally, if this was all there it might be a simpler world, 11:55.843 --> 11:59.983 but Freud had a third component, that of the superego. 11:59.980 --> 12:04.670 And the superego is the internalized rules of parents in 12:04.667 --> 12:06.797 society. So, what happens in the course 12:06.796 --> 12:08.876 of development is, you're just trying to make your 12:08.882 --> 12:11.012 way through the world and satisfy your desires, 12:11.009 --> 12:13.879 but sometimes you're punished for them. 12:13.879 --> 12:17.459 Some desires are inappropriate, some actions are wrong, 12:17.464 --> 12:19.394 and you're punished for it. 12:19.390 --> 12:23.480 The idea is that you come out; you get in your head a 12:23.482 --> 12:25.702 superego, a conscience. 12:25.700 --> 12:29.000 In these movies, there'd be a little angel above 12:29.004 --> 12:32.454 your head that tells you when things are wrong. 12:32.450 --> 12:37.630 And basically your self, the ego, is in between the id 12:37.632 --> 12:39.492 and the superego. 12:39.490 --> 12:42.350 One thing to realize, I told you the id is 12:42.346 --> 12:43.876 outrageously stupid. 12:43.879 --> 12:45.589 It just says, "Oh, hungry, 12:45.593 --> 12:47.583 food, sex, oh, let's get warm, 12:47.581 --> 12:52.221 oh." The superego is also stupid. 12:52.220 --> 12:53.740 The superego, point to point, 12:53.738 --> 12:56.778 is not some brilliant moral philosopher telling you about 12:56.775 --> 12:58.845 right and wrong. The superego would say, 12:58.846 --> 13:00.386 "You should be ashamed of yourself. 13:00.390 --> 13:01.430 That's disgusting. 13:01.430 --> 13:03.800 Stop doing that. Oh." 13:03.799 --> 13:06.449 And in between these two screaming creatures, 13:06.447 --> 13:09.027 one of you; one of them telling you to seek 13:09.031 --> 13:11.531 out your desires, the other one telling you, 13:11.530 --> 13:14.030 "you should be ashamed of yourself," is you, 13:14.030 --> 13:16.740 is the ego. Now, according to Freud, 13:16.739 --> 13:18.889 most of this is unconscious. 13:18.889 --> 13:22.889 So, we see bubbling up to the top, we feel, 13:22.886 --> 13:25.356 we experience ourselves. 13:25.360 --> 13:28.940 And the driving of the id, the forces of the id and the 13:28.938 --> 13:32.188 forces of the superego, are unconscious in that we 13:32.185 --> 13:33.705 cannot access them. 13:33.710 --> 13:38.410 We don't know what--It's like the workings of our kidneys or 13:38.414 --> 13:42.314 our stomachs. You can't introspect and find 13:42.311 --> 13:44.841 them. Rather, they do their work 13:44.841 --> 13:47.041 without conscious knowledge. 13:47.040 --> 13:49.250 Now, Freud developed this. 13:49.250 --> 13:52.340 This is the Freudian theory in broad outline. 13:52.340 --> 13:57.220 He extended it and developed it into a theory of psychosexual 13:57.221 --> 14:00.101 development. And so, Freud's theory is, 14:00.103 --> 14:02.993 as I said before, a theory of everyday life, 14:02.987 --> 14:06.197 of decisions, of errors, of falling in love, 14:06.196 --> 14:09.396 but it's also a theory of child development. 14:09.399 --> 14:13.999 So, Freud believed there were five stages of personality 14:14.000 --> 14:18.350 development, and each is associated with a particular 14:18.350 --> 14:21.220 erogenous zone. And Freud believed, 14:21.220 --> 14:24.860 as well, that if you have a problem at a certain stage, 14:24.860 --> 14:28.230 if something goes wrong, you'll be stuck there. 14:28.230 --> 14:30.770 So, according to Freud, there are people in this room 14:30.772 --> 14:33.752 who are what they are because they got stuck in the oral stage 14:33.754 --> 14:34.834 or the anal stage. 14:34.830 --> 14:38.400 And that's not good. 14:38.399 --> 14:41.149 So, the oral stage is when you start off. 14:41.149 --> 14:43.449 The mouth is associated with pleasure. 14:43.450 --> 14:46.740 Everything is sucking and chewing and so on. 14:46.740 --> 14:51.720 And the problem for Freud is premature weaning of a child. 14:51.720 --> 14:56.030 Depriving him of the breast, could lead to serious problems 14:56.034 --> 14:58.494 in his personality development. 14:58.490 --> 15:01.810 It could make him, as the phrase goes, 15:01.813 --> 15:03.793 into an oral person. 15:03.789 --> 15:07.839 And his orality could be described literally. 15:07.840 --> 15:12.410 Freud uses it as an explanation for why somebody might eat too 15:12.411 --> 15:14.511 much or chew gum or smoke. 15:14.509 --> 15:17.979 They're trying to achieve satisfaction through their mouth 15:17.984 --> 15:21.154 of a sort they didn't get in this very early stage of 15:21.154 --> 15:23.554 development. But it can also be more 15:23.551 --> 15:26.251 abstract. If your roommate is dependent 15:26.247 --> 15:30.047 and needy, you could then go to your roommate and say, 15:30.045 --> 15:31.975 "You are an oral person. 15:31.980 --> 15:36.700 The first year of your life did not go well." 15:36.700 --> 15:41.200 A phrase even more popular is the anal stage and that happens 15:41.196 --> 15:42.916 after the oral stage. 15:42.919 --> 15:48.089 And problems can emerge if toilet training is not handled 15:48.091 --> 15:50.791 correctly. If you have problems during 15:50.791 --> 15:53.391 those years of life, you could become an anal 15:53.385 --> 15:55.535 personality, according to Freud, 15:55.538 --> 15:59.208 and your roommate could say, "Your problem is you're too 15:59.209 --> 16:01.179 anal." And, according to Freud, 16:01.181 --> 16:04.501 literally, it meant you are unwilling to part with your own 16:04.495 --> 16:05.005 feces. 16:05.010 --> 16:08.030 16:08.030 --> 16:09.090 It's written down here. 16:09.090 --> 16:10.990 I know it's true. 16:10.990 --> 16:14.230 And the way it manifests itself, as you know from just 16:14.226 --> 16:16.486 how people talk, is you're compulsive, 16:16.485 --> 16:18.435 you're clean, you're stingy. 16:18.440 --> 16:20.770 This is the anal personality. 16:20.769 --> 16:23.839 Then it gets a little bit more complicated. 16:23.840 --> 16:25.870 The next stage is the phallic stage. 16:25.870 --> 16:27.510 Actually, this is not much more complicated. 16:27.509 --> 16:33.569 The focus of pleasure shifts to the genitals and fixation can 16:33.573 --> 16:40.043 lead to excessive masculinity in females or in males or if you're 16:40.041 --> 16:44.691 female a need for attention or domination. 16:44.690 --> 16:48.670 Now, at this point something really interesting happens 16:48.666 --> 16:50.946 called the "Oedipus Complex." 16:50.950 --> 16:55.320 And this is based on the story, the mythical story of a king 16:55.319 --> 16:58.799 who killed his father and married his mother. 16:58.799 --> 17:03.739 And, according to Freud, this happens to all of us in 17:03.735 --> 17:05.535 this way. Well, all of us. 17:05.539 --> 17:09.619 By "all of us," Freud meant "men." 17:09.620 --> 17:11.470 So, here's the idea. 17:11.470 --> 17:13.890 You're three or four years old. 17:13.890 --> 17:15.510 You're in the phallic stage. 17:15.510 --> 17:17.100 So, what are you interested in? 17:17.099 --> 17:21.779 Well, you're interested in your penis and then you seek an 17:21.781 --> 17:24.771 external object. Freud's sort of vague about 17:24.765 --> 17:27.325 this, but you seek some sort of satisfaction. 17:27.329 --> 17:30.889 But who is out there who'd be sweet and kind and loving and 17:30.892 --> 17:35.322 wonderful? Well, Mom. 17:35.319 --> 17:39.669 So the child infers, "Mom is nice, 17:39.666 --> 17:43.766 I love Mom." So far so--And so this is not 17:43.765 --> 17:46.605 crazy; a little boy falling in love 17:46.612 --> 17:51.022 with his mother. Problem: Dad's in the way. 17:51.019 --> 17:55.529 Now, this is going to get progressively weirder but I will 17:55.527 --> 17:58.767 have to say, as the father of two sons, 17:58.769 --> 18:02.119 both sons went through a phase where they explicitly said they 18:02.121 --> 18:03.441 wanted to marry Mommy. 18:03.440 --> 18:06.300 And me – if something bad happened to me that wouldn't be 18:06.300 --> 18:07.830 the worst thing in the world. 18:07.830 --> 18:10.300 So, there's this. 18:10.299 --> 18:14.369 But now it gets a little bit aggressive. 18:14.369 --> 18:17.979 So, the idea is the child determines that he's going to 18:17.977 --> 18:21.177 kill his father. Every three- and four-year-old 18:21.177 --> 18:24.207 boy thinks this. But then because children, 18:24.214 --> 18:27.804 according to Freud, don't have a good sense of the 18:27.803 --> 18:31.103 boundary between their mind and the world, 18:31.099 --> 18:34.949 which is a problem – the problem is they don't – they 18:34.947 --> 18:39.337 think their father can tell that they're plotting to kill him and 18:39.344 --> 18:42.784 they figure their father is now angry at them. 18:42.779 --> 18:45.659 And then they ask themselves, "What's the worst thing Dad 18:45.655 --> 18:51.615 could do to me?" And the answer is castration. 18:51.619 --> 18:55.669 So, they come to the conclusion that their father is going to 18:55.674 --> 18:59.734 castrate them because of their illicit love for their Mom. 18:59.730 --> 19:02.980 And then they say, "Dad wins" and then they don't 19:02.983 --> 19:06.713 think about sex for several years and that's the latency 19:06.712 --> 19:08.972 stage. The latency stage is they've 19:08.965 --> 19:11.495 gone through this huge thing with Mom and Dad, 19:11.497 --> 19:14.727 "fell in love with Mom, wanted to kill my father, 19:14.734 --> 19:18.784 Dad was going to castrate me, fell out of love with Mom, 19:18.780 --> 19:20.540 out of the sex business." 19:20.539 --> 19:23.099 And then, sex is repressed until you get to the genital 19:23.100 --> 19:25.890 stage. And the genital stage is the 19:25.894 --> 19:30.124 stage we are all in – the healthy adult stage. 19:30.119 --> 19:34.219 Now that you're adults and you've gone through all the 19:34.221 --> 19:37.551 developmental stages, where do you stand? 19:37.549 --> 19:42.159 You're not out of the woods yet because unconscious mechanisms 19:42.161 --> 19:46.471 are still--Even if you haven't got fixated on anything, 19:46.470 --> 19:50.810 there's still this dynamic going on all the time with your 19:50.814 --> 19:53.334 id, your ego and your superego. 19:53.329 --> 19:56.239 And the idea is your superego--Remember, 19:56.240 --> 19:58.180 your superego is stupid. 19:58.180 --> 20:02.770 So, your superego isn't only telling you not to do bad 20:02.771 --> 20:07.191 things, it's telling you not to think bad things. 20:07.190 --> 20:11.320 So, what's happening is your id is sending up all of this weird, 20:11.318 --> 20:15.048 sick stuff, all of these crazy sexual and violent desires, 20:15.052 --> 20:16.562 "Oh, I'll kill him. 20:16.560 --> 20:18.730 I'll have sex with that. 20:18.730 --> 20:23.340 I'll have extra helpings on my dessert." 20:23.339 --> 20:28.439 And your superego is saying, "No, no, no." 20:28.440 --> 20:30.580 And this stuff is repressed. 20:30.579 --> 20:32.579 It doesn't even make it to consciousness. 20:32.579 --> 20:37.269 The problem is Freud had a very sort of hydraulic theory of what 20:37.266 --> 20:41.576 goes on and some of this stuff slips out and it shows up in 20:41.580 --> 20:45.300 dreams and it shows up in slips of the tongue. 20:45.299 --> 20:48.939 And in exceptional cases, it shows up in certain clinical 20:48.935 --> 20:51.165 symptoms. So what happens is, 20:51.166 --> 20:56.116 Freud described a lot of normal life in terms of different ways 20:56.115 --> 21:00.895 we use to keep that horrible stuff from the id making its way 21:00.904 --> 21:02.664 to consciousness. 21:02.660 --> 21:05.610 And he called these "defense mechanisms." 21:05.609 --> 21:10.119 You're defending yourself against the horrible parts of 21:10.116 --> 21:14.786 yourself and some of these make a little bit of sense. 21:14.789 --> 21:17.269 One way to describe this in a non-technical, 21:17.272 --> 21:20.162 non-Freudian way is, there are certain things about 21:20.159 --> 21:22.179 ourselves we'd rather not know. 21:22.180 --> 21:25.540 There are certain desires we'd rather not know and we have ways 21:25.537 --> 21:27.377 to hide them. So, for instance, 21:27.378 --> 21:28.648 there's sublimation. 21:28.650 --> 21:31.850 Sublimation is you might have a lot of energy, 21:31.846 --> 21:34.896 maybe sexual energy or aggressive energy, 21:34.900 --> 21:38.450 but instead of turning it to a sexual or aggressive target what 21:38.454 --> 21:40.924 you do is you focus it in some other way. 21:40.920 --> 21:44.550 So, you can imagine a great artist like Picasso turning the 21:44.552 --> 21:46.622 sexual energy into his artwork. 21:46.620 --> 21:52.090 There is displacement. 21:52.089 --> 21:55.879 Displacement is you have certain shameful thoughts or 21:55.882 --> 21:59.532 desires and you refocus them more appropriately. 21:59.529 --> 22:03.609 A boy who's bullied by his father may hate his father and 22:03.605 --> 22:08.185 want to hurt him but since this would--this is very shameful and 22:08.191 --> 22:10.931 difficult. The boy might instead kick the 22:10.927 --> 22:14.477 dog and think he hates the dog because that's a more acceptable 22:14.477 --> 22:15.047 target. 22:15.050 --> 22:22.960 22:22.960 --> 22:24.540 There is projection. 22:24.539 --> 22:27.569 Projection is, I have certain impulses I am 22:27.568 --> 22:31.168 uncomfortable with, so rather than own them myself, 22:31.174 --> 22:33.774 I project them to somebody else. 22:33.769 --> 22:37.789 A classic example for Freud is homosexual desires. 22:37.789 --> 22:41.659 The idea is that I feel this tremendous lust towards you, 22:41.659 --> 22:43.869 for instance, and--any of you, 22:43.869 --> 22:49.349 all of you, you three, and I'm ashamed of this lust so 22:49.346 --> 22:51.616 what I say is, "Hey. 22:51.619 --> 22:53.999 Are you guys looking at me in a sexual manner? 22:54.000 --> 22:55.700 Are you lusting after me? 22:55.700 --> 22:59.160 How disgusting," because what I do is I take my own desires and 22:59.163 --> 23:00.563 I project it to others. 23:00.559 --> 23:03.419 And Freud suggested, perhaps not implausibly, 23:03.421 --> 23:07.061 that men who believe other men--who are obsessed with the 23:07.063 --> 23:11.003 sexuality of other men, are themselves projecting away 23:11.000 --> 23:12.890 their own sexual desires. 23:12.890 --> 23:16.410 There is rationalization, which is that when you do 23:16.408 --> 23:20.838 something or think something bad you rationalize it and you give 23:20.842 --> 23:24.082 it a more socially acceptable explanation. 23:24.079 --> 23:28.579 A parent who enjoys smacking his child will typically not 23:28.578 --> 23:31.388 say, "I enjoy smacking my child." 23:31.390 --> 23:33.650 Rather he'll say, "It's for the child's own good. 23:33.650 --> 23:35.540 I'm being a good parent by doing this." 23:35.539 --> 23:37.529 And finally, there is regression, 23:37.529 --> 23:41.009 which is returning to an earlier stage of development. 23:41.009 --> 23:42.629 And you actually see this in children. 23:42.630 --> 23:47.160 In times of stress and trauma, they'll become younger, 23:47.159 --> 23:49.209 they will act younger. 23:49.210 --> 23:51.730 They might cry. They might suck their thumb, 23:51.734 --> 23:53.484 seek out a blanket or so on. 23:53.480 --> 23:56.960 Now, these are all mechanisms that for Freud are not the 23:56.956 --> 23:58.786 slightest bit pathological. 23:58.790 --> 24:00.600 They are part of normal life. 24:00.599 --> 24:05.129 Normally, we do these things to keep an equilibrium among the 24:05.127 --> 24:09.127 different systems of the unconscious, but sometimes it 24:09.127 --> 24:13.047 doesn't work. Sometimes things go awry and 24:13.051 --> 24:19.001 what happens is a phrase that's not currently used in psychology 24:18.996 --> 24:23.616 but was popular during Freud's time: hysteria. 24:23.619 --> 24:27.089 Hysteria includes phenomena like hysterical blindness and 24:27.087 --> 24:29.847 hysterical deafness, which is when you cannot see 24:29.845 --> 24:32.735 and cannot hear even though there's nothing physiologically 24:32.735 --> 24:36.325 wrong with you – paralysis, trembling, panic attacks, 24:36.333 --> 24:39.863 gaps of memory including amnesia and so on. 24:39.859 --> 24:43.029 And the idea is that these are actually symptoms. 24:43.029 --> 24:46.769 These are symptoms of mechanisms going on to keep 24:46.772 --> 24:48.412 things unconscious. 24:48.410 --> 24:52.400 It's a common enough idea in movies. 24:52.400 --> 24:54.700 Often in movies what happens is that somebody goes to an 24:54.701 --> 24:56.871 analyst. They have some horrible problem. 24:56.869 --> 24:59.779 They can't remember something or they have some sort of 24:59.776 --> 25:00.956 blackouts and so on. 25:00.960 --> 25:05.410 And the analyst tells them something and at one point they 25:05.414 --> 25:09.324 get this insight and they realize what--why they've 25:09.322 --> 25:12.672 blinded themselves, why they can't remember, 25:12.667 --> 25:14.987 and for Freud this is what happens. 25:14.990 --> 25:20.120 Freud originally attempted to get these memories out through 25:20.117 --> 25:25.237 hypnosis but then moved to the mechanism of free association 25:25.244 --> 25:27.744 and, according to Freud, 25:27.739 --> 25:33.139 the idea is patients offer resistance to this and then the 25:33.139 --> 25:38.919 idea of a psychoanalyst is to get over the resistance and help 25:38.917 --> 25:41.377 patients get insight. 25:41.380 --> 25:46.940 The key notion of psychoanalysis is your problems 25:46.935 --> 25:51.675 are--actually reflect deeper phenomena. 25:51.680 --> 25:55.490 You're hiding something from yourself, and once you know 25:55.488 --> 25:59.368 what's going on to deeper phenomena your problems will go 25:59.366 --> 26:01.516 away. I'm going to give you an 26:01.523 --> 26:03.443 example of a therapy session. 26:03.440 --> 26:06.250 Now, this is not a Freudian analysis. 26:06.250 --> 26:09.450 We'll discuss later on in the course what a Freudian analysis 26:09.451 --> 26:11.961 is, but this is not a pure Freudian analysis. 26:11.960 --> 26:14.540 A Freudian analysis, of course, is lying on a couch; 26:14.540 --> 26:17.820 does not see their therapist; their therapist is very 26:17.819 --> 26:20.699 nondirective. But I'm going to present this 26:20.703 --> 26:24.523 as an example here because it illustrates so many of the 26:24.521 --> 26:27.481 Freudian themes, particularly themes about 26:27.484 --> 26:30.974 dreams, the importance of dreams, about repression and 26:30.971 --> 26:32.551 about hidden meaning. 26:32.549 --> 26:35.309 So, this is from a television episode and the 26:35.313 --> 26:38.583 character's--Many--Some of you may have seen this. 26:38.580 --> 26:40.020 Many of you will not have. 26:40.019 --> 26:42.389 The character is suffering from panic attacks. 26:42.390 --> 27:14.740 27:14.740 --> 27:19.280 Freud's contributions extend beyond the study of individual 27:19.283 --> 27:22.263 psychology and individual pathology. 27:22.259 --> 27:26.099 Freud had a lot to say about dreams as you could see in this 27:26.102 --> 27:29.902 illustration. He believed that dreams had a 27:29.897 --> 27:32.517 manifest content, meaning; 27:32.519 --> 27:35.509 "manifest" meaning what you experience in your dream. 27:35.509 --> 27:38.829 But dreams always had a latent content as well, 27:38.829 --> 27:42.149 meaning the hidden implication of the dream. 27:42.150 --> 27:45.220 He viewed all dreams as wish fulfillment. 27:45.220 --> 27:47.440 Every dream you have is a certain wish you have even 27:47.440 --> 27:50.050 though it might be a forbidden wish that you wouldn't wish to 27:50.052 --> 27:51.622 have, you wouldn't want to have. 27:51.619 --> 27:56.029 And dreams had--and this is an idea that long predated Freud. 27:56.030 --> 27:57.970 Dreams had symbolism. 27:57.970 --> 28:02.070 Things in dreams were often not what they seemed to be but 28:02.066 --> 28:04.506 rather symbols for other things. 28:04.509 --> 28:10.809 Freud believed that literature and fairy tales and stories to 28:10.807 --> 28:16.787 children and the like carried certain universal themes, 28:16.789 --> 28:20.579 certain aspects of unconscious struggles, and certain 28:20.575 --> 28:23.555 preoccupations of our unconscious mind. 28:23.559 --> 28:26.729 And Freud had a lot to say about religion. 28:26.730 --> 28:30.230 For instance, he viewed a large part of 28:30.226 --> 28:33.996 our--of the idea of finding a singular, 28:34.000 --> 28:39.050 all-powerful god as seeking out a father figure that some of us 28:39.053 --> 28:41.583 never had during development. 28:41.579 --> 28:45.019 What I want to spend the rest of the class on is the 28:45.016 --> 28:47.236 scientific assessment of Freud. 28:47.240 --> 28:50.420 So, what I did so far is I've told you what Freud had to say 28:50.416 --> 28:51.436 in broad outline. 28:51.440 --> 28:55.000 I then want to take the time to consider whether or not we 28:55.002 --> 28:59.192 should believe this and how well it fits with our modern science. 28:59.190 --> 29:02.020 But before doing so, I'll take questions for a few 29:02.022 --> 29:04.282 minutes. Do people have any questions 29:04.275 --> 29:06.245 about Freud or Freud's theories? 29:06.250 --> 29:10.410 29:10.410 --> 29:14.620 Yes. Student: 29:14.622 --> 29:18.632 [inaudible] Professor Paul Bloom: 29:18.631 --> 29:21.511 So, that's some question. 29:21.509 --> 29:25.109 The question is: The conflicts in psychosexual 29:25.113 --> 29:30.163 development that Freud describes is--always assumes that a child 29:30.157 --> 29:33.227 has a mother and a father, one of each, 29:33.232 --> 29:35.532 in a certain sort of familial structure. 29:35.529 --> 29:39.429 And the question then is, "What if a child was raised by 29:39.430 --> 29:41.700 a single parent, for example?" 29:41.700 --> 29:44.420 What if a child was never breast fed, but fed from the 29:44.418 --> 29:45.648 bottle from the start? 29:45.650 --> 29:49.380 And Freudians have had problems with this. 29:49.380 --> 29:54.690 Freud's--Freud was very focused on the family life of the people 29:54.690 --> 29:57.860 he interacted with, which is rather upper class 29:57.857 --> 30:00.597 Europeans, and these sort of questions would have been 30:00.601 --> 30:02.311 difficult for Freud to answer. 30:02.309 --> 30:04.889 I imagine that what a Freudian would have to say is, 30:04.892 --> 30:07.022 you would expect systematic differences. 30:07.019 --> 30:10.059 So, you would expect a child who just grew up with a mother 30:10.059 --> 30:12.839 or just grew up to be a father--with a father to be in 30:12.836 --> 30:15.296 some sense psychologically damaged by that, 30:15.299 --> 30:19.479 failing to go through the normal psychosexual stages. 30:19.480 --> 30:23.000 Yes. Student: 30:22.996 --> 30:26.706 [inaudible] Professor Paul Bloom: 30:26.706 --> 30:31.816 The issue--The question is, "Do modern psychoanalysts still 30:31.817 --> 30:34.947 believe that women do not have superegos?" 30:34.950 --> 30:39.170 Freud was--As you're pointing out, Freud was notorious for 30:39.171 --> 30:43.321 pointing, for suggesting that women were morally immature 30:43.318 --> 30:46.398 relative to men. I think Freud would say that 30:46.398 --> 30:49.188 women have superegos, they're just not the sort of 30:49.194 --> 30:50.854 sturdy ones that men have. 30:50.849 --> 30:54.229 I think psychoanalysts and psychoanalytic scholars right 30:54.229 --> 30:55.519 now would be mixed. 30:55.519 --> 30:58.299 Some would maintain that there really are deep sex differences. 30:58.299 --> 31:01.219 Others would want to jettison that aspect of Freudian theory. 31:01.220 --> 31:05.340 31:05.340 --> 31:08.130 Yes. Student: 31:08.128 --> 31:10.538 Do you define sublimation as being displacement? 31:10.539 --> 31:14.679 Does that make it sort of a subgroup of displacement? 31:14.680 --> 31:16.940 Professor Paul Bloom: Well, what sublimation is--A 31:16.938 --> 31:18.428 lot of these--It's a good question. 31:18.430 --> 31:20.130 The question is sort of, what is sublimation? 31:20.130 --> 31:22.480 How does it relate to the other defense mechanisms? 31:22.480 --> 31:28.450 A lot of defense mechanisms involve taking a desire and 31:28.452 --> 31:32.622 turning it. Now, what displacement does is 31:32.620 --> 31:35.260 it takes it from you to her. 31:35.259 --> 31:37.899 I'm angry at you but maybe that's forbidden for some 31:37.900 --> 31:39.660 reason, so I'll be angry at her. 31:39.660 --> 31:43.800 What projection does is takes a desire from me and then puts it 31:43.803 --> 31:46.213 on somebody else heading outwards. 31:46.210 --> 31:50.290 And what sublimation does is it just gives up the details and 31:50.288 --> 31:51.578 keeps the energy. 31:51.579 --> 31:55.219 So, you stay up--Your roommate stays up all night working and 31:55.221 --> 31:57.581 you say to your roommate, for instance, 31:57.576 --> 32:00.546 "That's just because you haven't had sex in a long time 32:00.554 --> 32:03.924 and you want to have sex so you devote all your energy to your 32:03.917 --> 32:06.197 math exam." And then you say, 32:06.204 --> 32:07.944 "That's sublimation. 32:07.940 --> 32:09.790 I learned that in Intro Psych." 32:09.789 --> 32:13.489 And your roommate would be very pleased. 32:13.490 --> 32:14.690 One more question. 32:14.690 --> 32:23.340 32:23.340 --> 32:26.540 Yes. Student: 32:26.536 --> 32:30.626 What kind of evidence is there for cross-cultural variation? 32:30.630 --> 32:32.400 Professor Paul Bloom: The question is, 32:32.402 --> 32:34.502 which is related to the issue--extending the issue of 32:34.496 --> 32:36.386 the two-parent versus one-parent family is, 32:36.390 --> 32:39.000 "To what extent are these notions validated 32:38.998 --> 32:40.238 cross-culturally?" 32:40.240 --> 32:42.410 And that's such a good question I'm going to defer it. 32:42.410 --> 32:45.250 I'm going to talk about it in a few minutes because that's 32:45.254 --> 32:47.804 actually--That speaks to the issue of the scientific 32:47.798 --> 32:50.888 assessment of Freud so I'm going to try to get to your question 32:50.892 --> 32:51.992 in a little bit. 32:51.990 --> 32:55.840 32:55.839 --> 33:00.099 Freudian theory is now, at this point of time, 33:00.101 --> 33:05.311 extremely controversial and there is a lot of well-known 33:05.310 --> 33:08.720 criticisms and attacks on Freud. 33:08.720 --> 33:12.280 This is just actually an excellent book on The Memory 33:12.278 --> 33:16.218 Wars by Frederick Crews, which--and Frederick Crews is 33:16.223 --> 33:20.303 one of the strongest and most passionate critics of Freud. 33:20.299 --> 33:26.249 And the problems with Freud go like this. 33:26.250 --> 33:30.100 There are two ways you could reject a theory. 33:30.099 --> 33:32.689 There are two problems with the scientific theory. 33:32.690 --> 33:37.120 One way you could reject a theory is that it could be 33:37.118 --> 33:39.438 wrong. So, suppose I have a theory 33:39.439 --> 33:42.169 that the reason why some children have autism, 33:42.172 --> 33:44.422 a profound developmental disorder, 33:44.420 --> 33:46.810 is because their mothers don't love them enough. 33:46.809 --> 33:49.799 This was a popular theory for many years. 33:49.800 --> 33:52.370 It's a possible theory. 33:52.369 --> 33:57.289 It just turns out to be wrong but another way--And so one way 33:57.288 --> 34:01.718 to attack and address a scientific theory is to view it 34:01.715 --> 34:05.235 as just to see whether or not it works. 34:05.240 --> 34:08.330 But there's a different problem a theory could have. 34:08.329 --> 34:14.839 A theory could be so vague and all encompassing that it can't 34:14.836 --> 34:18.736 even be tested. And this is one of the main 34:18.736 --> 34:20.256 critiques of Freud. 34:20.260 --> 34:25.080 The idea could be summed up by a quotation from the physicist 34:25.075 --> 34:28.625 Wolfgang Pauli. And Pauli was asked his opinion 34:28.632 --> 34:30.402 about another physicist. 34:30.400 --> 34:35.290 And Pauli said this: "That guy's work is crap. 34:35.290 --> 34:39.420 He's not right. He's not even wrong." 34:39.420 --> 34:44.790 And the criticism about Freud is that he's not even wrong. 34:44.789 --> 34:49.679 The issue of vagueness is summarized in a more technical 34:49.684 --> 34:54.314 way by the philosopher Karl Popper who described--who 34:54.312 --> 34:58.052 introduced the term of falsifiability. 34:58.050 --> 35:03.230 The idea of falsifiability is that what distinguishes science 35:03.233 --> 35:07.643 from non science is that scientific predictions make 35:07.639 --> 35:12.739 strong claims about the world and these claims are of a sort 35:12.737 --> 35:16.017 that they could be proven wrong. 35:16.019 --> 35:18.869 If they couldn't be proven wrong, they're not interesting 35:18.869 --> 35:20.039 enough to be science. 35:20.039 --> 35:22.369 So, for example, within psychology the sort of 35:22.366 --> 35:25.306 claims we'll be entertaining throughout the course include 35:25.312 --> 35:27.932 claims like, damage to the hippocampus 35:27.925 --> 35:32.415 causes failures of certain sorts of memory, or everywhere in the 35:32.423 --> 35:36.563 world men on average want to have more sexual partners than 35:36.564 --> 35:38.844 women, or exposure to violent 35:38.838 --> 35:42.088 television tends to make children themselves more 35:42.085 --> 35:45.075 violent. Now, are they true or are they 35:45.084 --> 35:47.424 false? Well, we'll talk about that, 35:47.423 --> 35:50.083 but the point here is they can be false. 35:50.079 --> 35:54.819 They're interesting enough that they can be tested and as such 35:54.816 --> 35:59.546 they go to--they might be wrong but they graduate to the level 35:59.553 --> 36:01.653 of a scientific theory. 36:01.650 --> 36:06.080 This should be contrasted with nonscientific programs and the 36:06.084 --> 36:10.154 best example of a nonscientific program is astrology. 36:10.150 --> 36:14.450 So, the problem with astrological predictions is not 36:14.449 --> 36:16.219 that they're wrong. 36:16.220 --> 36:17.650 It's that they can't be wrong. 36:17.650 --> 36:18.760 They're not even wrong. 36:18.760 --> 36:25.910 I did my--I got my horoscope for today on the web. 36:25.909 --> 36:28.419 "A couple of negative aspects could make you a little finicky 36:28.422 --> 36:29.472 for the next few days." 36:29.470 --> 36:31.770 Okay. I'm going to watch for that. 36:31.769 --> 36:34.279 "The presence of both Mars and Venus suggests you want to box 36:34.282 --> 36:36.802 everything into a neat, ordered, structured way but 36:36.795 --> 36:39.775 keeping a piece of jade or carnelian close will help you 36:39.781 --> 36:41.791 keep in touch with your fun side." 36:41.789 --> 36:44.489 And starting this morning I got from my wife a little piece of 36:44.493 --> 36:47.023 jade and I have been sort of in touch with my fun side. 36:47.019 --> 36:49.279 The problem is, a few days aren't going to go 36:49.282 --> 36:50.262 by and say, "God. 36:50.260 --> 36:52.990 That was wrong." It can't be wrong. 36:52.990 --> 36:54.960 It's just so vague. 36:54.960 --> 36:59.030 I got a better horoscope from The Onion actually: 36:59.028 --> 37:02.578 "Riding in a golf cart with snow cone in hand, 37:02.579 --> 37:05.369 you'll be tackled by two police officers this week after 37:05.368 --> 37:08.358 matching a composite caricature of a suspected murderer." 37:08.360 --> 37:16.690 Now, that's a good prediction because "wow." 37:16.690 --> 37:18.950 If it turns out to be true, I'm going to say, 37:18.949 --> 37:20.849 "Those guys really know something." 37:20.850 --> 37:24.680 It's falsifiable. 37:24.679 --> 37:30.209 Arguably, Freud fails the test because Freudian theory is often 37:30.205 --> 37:35.365 so vague and flexible that it can't really be tested in any 37:35.374 --> 37:38.394 reliable way. A big problem with this is a 37:38.393 --> 37:41.353 lot of Freudian theory is claimed to be validated in the 37:41.346 --> 37:42.846 course of psychoanalysis. 37:42.849 --> 37:45.549 So, when you ask people, "Why do you believe in Freud?" 37:45.550 --> 37:46.870 they won't say, "Oh, because of this 37:46.872 --> 37:48.952 experiment, that experiment, this data set and that data 37:48.949 --> 37:50.429 set." What they'll say is, 37:50.427 --> 37:53.607 "It's--The Freudian theory proves itself in the course of 37:53.614 --> 37:56.634 psychoanalysis – the success of psychoanalysis." 37:56.630 --> 37:58.840 But it's unreliable. 37:58.840 --> 38:00.950 The problem is, say, Freud says to a patient, 38:00.950 --> 38:02.150 "You hate your mother." 38:02.150 --> 38:03.680 The patient says, "Wow. 38:03.680 --> 38:04.870 That makes sense." 38:04.870 --> 38:07.210 Freud says, "I'm right." 38:07.210 --> 38:09.760 The patient--Freud says, "You hate your mother," and the 38:09.757 --> 38:11.097 patient says, "No, I don't. 38:11.100 --> 38:11.840 That's titillating. 38:11.840 --> 38:15.410 That's disgusting." 38:15.409 --> 38:16.999 Freud says, "Your anger shows this idea is painful to you. 38:16.998 --> 38:18.108 You have repressed it from consciousness. 38:18.113 --> 38:21.283 I am right." And the problem is the same 38:21.277 --> 38:27.417 sort of dynamic plays itself out even in the scientific debate 38:27.418 --> 38:30.228 back and forth. So Freud--Freudian 38:30.231 --> 38:33.291 psychologists--I'm putting Freud here but what I mean is 38:33.293 --> 38:36.413 well-known defenders of Freud will make some claims like: 38:36.410 --> 38:39.250 adult personality traits are shaped by the course of 38:39.248 --> 38:42.368 psychosexual development; all dreams are disguised wish 38:42.369 --> 38:44.079 fulfillment; psychoanalysis is the best 38:44.077 --> 38:45.437 treatment for mental disorders. 38:45.440 --> 38:47.480 Scientists will respond, "I disagree. 38:47.480 --> 38:49.410 There's little or no evidence supporting those claims." 38:49.409 --> 38:51.779 And the Freudian response is, "Your rejection of my ideas 38:51.777 --> 38:53.507 shows that they are distressing to you. 38:53.510 --> 38:55.660 This is because I am right." 38:55.659 --> 38:58.669 And this is often followed up, seriously enough. 38:58.670 --> 39:02.650 "You have deep psychological problems." 39:02.650 --> 39:09.210 And now, I don't want to caricature Freudians. 39:09.210 --> 39:13.980 A lot of Freudians have tried and made a research program of 39:13.976 --> 39:16.876 extending their ideas scientifically, 39:16.884 --> 39:20.524 bringing them to robust scientific tests. 39:20.519 --> 39:23.689 But the problem is, when you make specific 39:23.687 --> 39:28.087 falsifiable predictions they don't always do that well. 39:28.090 --> 39:30.540 So, for instance, there's no evidence that oral 39:30.541 --> 39:33.531 and anal characteristics, the personality characteristics 39:33.527 --> 39:36.667 I talked about – about being needy versus being stingy – 39:36.671 --> 39:40.191 relate in any interesting way to weaning or toilet training. 39:40.190 --> 39:42.910 And there's been some efforts cross-culturally, 39:42.910 --> 39:46.280 to go back to the question this young man asked before – 39:46.282 --> 39:49.542 looking at cross-cultural differences in toilet training 39:49.535 --> 39:51.715 and weaning, which are really big 39:51.718 --> 39:54.848 differences, to see if they correspond in any interesting 39:54.849 --> 39:56.749 way to personality differences. 39:56.750 --> 39:59.740 And there's been no good evidence supporting that. 39:59.739 --> 40:03.449 Similarly, Freud had some strong claims about sexuality, 40:03.448 --> 40:07.088 for why some people are straight and others are gay. 40:07.090 --> 40:12.180 These have met with very little empirical support. 40:12.179 --> 40:15.359 And the claim that psychoanalysis proves itself by 40:15.363 --> 40:19.523 being--by its tremendous success in curing mental illness is also 40:19.521 --> 40:21.471 almost certainly not true. 40:21.469 --> 40:24.339 For most--Maybe not all, but for most psychological 40:24.335 --> 40:27.825 disorders, there are quicker and more reliable treatments than 40:27.831 --> 40:30.501 psychoanalysis. And there's considerable 40:30.499 --> 40:34.579 controversy as to whether the Tony Soprano method of insight, 40:34.579 --> 40:38.409 where you get this insight and there's discovery, 40:38.410 --> 40:42.960 "Oh, now I know," makes any real difference in alleviating 40:42.960 --> 40:47.190 symptoms such as anxiety disorders or depression. 40:47.190 --> 40:50.890 This is why there's sort of--often sort of a sticker 40:50.888 --> 40:55.018 shock when people go to a university psychology department 40:55.021 --> 40:56.541 where they say, "Look. 40:56.544 --> 40:58.354 Hey. Where is--So I'm in Psych. 40:58.349 --> 41:00.439 How could I take classes on Freud? 41:00.440 --> 41:03.250 Who's your expert on Freud?" 41:03.250 --> 41:07.460 And the truth is Freudian psychoanalysis is almost never 41:07.464 --> 41:10.534 studied inside psychology departments. 41:10.530 --> 41:13.230 Not the cognitive or developmental side, 41:13.229 --> 41:14.889 not the clinical side. 41:14.889 --> 41:17.919 There are some exceptions but, for the most part, 41:17.919 --> 41:21.139 even the people who do study Freud within psychology 41:21.137 --> 41:23.217 departments do so critically. 41:23.219 --> 41:27.209 Very few of them would see themselves as a psychoanalytic 41:27.206 --> 41:30.406 practitioner or as a Freudian psychologist. 41:30.409 --> 41:34.189 Freud lives on both in a clinical setting and in the 41:34.185 --> 41:37.035 university but Freud at Yale, for instance, 41:37.039 --> 41:39.749 is much more likely to be found in the history department or the 41:39.750 --> 41:42.290 literature department than in the psychology department. 41:42.289 --> 41:47.639 And this is typical enough but, despite all of the, 41:47.640 --> 41:52.670 sort of, sour things I just said about Freud, 41:52.670 --> 41:56.450 the big idea, the importance of the dynamic 41:56.449 --> 41:59.149 unconscious, remains intact. 41:59.150 --> 42:03.400 We will go over and over and over again different case 42:03.401 --> 42:07.731 studies where some really interesting aspects of mental 42:07.732 --> 42:10.382 life prove to be unconscious. 42:10.380 --> 42:12.210 Now, there's one question. 42:12.210 --> 42:17.820 I'm actually going to skip over this for reasons of time and 42:17.819 --> 42:22.759 just go to some examples of the unconscious in modern 42:22.763 --> 42:27.533 psychology. So, here's a simple example of 42:27.532 --> 42:32.552 the unconscious in modern psychology: Language 42:32.545 --> 42:36.925 understanding. So, when you hear a sentence 42:36.932 --> 42:42.102 like, "John thinks that Bill likes him," in a fraction of a 42:42.095 --> 42:47.435 second you realize that this means that John thinks that Bill 42:47.435 --> 42:49.835 likes John. If you heard the 42:49.844 --> 42:53.414 sentence--Oops--"John thinks that Bill likes himself," in a 42:53.413 --> 42:57.233 fraction of a second you would think that it means "John thinks 42:57.228 --> 42:58.888 that Bill likes Bill." 42:58.889 --> 43:01.699 And as we will get to when we get to the lecture on language, 43:01.697 --> 43:02.817 this is not conscious. 43:02.820 --> 43:04.020 You don't know how you do this. 43:04.019 --> 43:07.349 You don't even know that you are doing this but you do it 43:07.346 --> 43:09.006 quickly and instinctively. 43:09.010 --> 43:13.280 So much of our day-to-day life can be done unconsciously. 43:13.280 --> 43:17.020 There are different activities you can do – driving, 43:17.020 --> 43:19.770 chewing gum, shoelace tying – where if 43:19.772 --> 43:23.342 you're good enough at them, if you're expert enough at 43:23.342 --> 43:25.472 them, you don't know you're doing them. 43:25.469 --> 43:29.009 I was at a party a few years ago for a friend of mine and we 43:29.010 --> 43:32.190 ran out of food so he said, "I'll just go pick up some 43:32.190 --> 43:34.150 food." An hour later he was 43:34.154 --> 43:37.364 gone--still gone and it was around the corner. 43:37.360 --> 43:40.650 And we called him up on his cell phone and he said, 43:40.645 --> 43:44.065 "Oh. I got on the highway and I 43:44.073 --> 43:47.023 drove to work." Yeah. 43:47.019 --> 43:49.709 He works an hour away but he got on the highway "drive drive 43:49.709 --> 43:52.169 drive." And these--some version of 43:52.166 --> 43:55.076 these things happen all of the time. 43:55.080 --> 43:59.380 43:59.380 --> 44:03.690 Maybe more surprising, Freud's insight that our likes 44:03.689 --> 44:08.409 and dislikes are due to factors that we're not necessarily 44:08.414 --> 44:12.724 conscious of has a lot of empirical support--a lot of 44:12.724 --> 44:17.784 empirical support from research into social psychology, 44:17.780 --> 44:20.850 for example. So, here's one finding from 44:20.848 --> 44:22.238 social psychology. 44:22.239 --> 44:28.819 If somebody goes through a terrible initiation to get into 44:28.819 --> 44:33.089 a club, they'll like the club more. 44:33.090 --> 44:36.070 You might think they'd like it less because people do terrible 44:36.069 --> 44:38.129 things to them. But actually, 44:38.126 --> 44:43.026 hazing is illegal but a remarkably successful tool. 44:43.030 --> 44:46.930 The more you pay for something the more you like it and the 44:46.934 --> 44:51.314 more pain you go through to get something the more you like it. 44:51.309 --> 44:55.069 From the standpoint of politics for instance, 44:55.069 --> 44:59.169 if you want loyal people in a political campaign, 44:59.171 --> 45:01.911 do not pay them. If you pay them, 45:01.909 --> 45:03.389 they'll like you less. 45:03.389 --> 45:07.059 If they volunteer, they'll like you more. 45:07.060 --> 45:09.420 And we'll talk about why. 45:09.420 --> 45:12.740 There's different theories about why, but my point right 45:12.735 --> 45:16.465 now is simply that people don't necessarily know this but still 45:16.472 --> 45:18.162 they're subject to this. 45:18.159 --> 45:23.499 Another example is some weird studies done in a discipline of 45:23.502 --> 45:28.672 social psychology known as terror management which involves 45:28.666 --> 45:31.156 subliminal death primes. 45:31.159 --> 45:34.429 The idea of subliminal death primes is this. 45:34.429 --> 45:37.589 You sign up for your human subjects requirement and then 45:37.588 --> 45:41.028 you--they put you in front of a computer screen and then they 45:41.033 --> 45:42.963 tell you, "Oh, just sit in front of the 45:42.960 --> 45:45.240 computer screen and then we'll ask you some questions." 45:45.239 --> 45:48.069 And then the questions come out and they're questions like, 45:48.073 --> 45:49.933 "How much do you love your country?" 45:49.930 --> 45:52.900 "What do you think of Asians?" 45:52.900 --> 45:53.680 "What do you think of Jews?" 45:53.680 --> 45:55.010 "What do you think of blacks?" 45:55.010 --> 45:56.770 "What do you think of vegetarians?" 45:56.769 --> 45:59.529 "What do you think of people's political views different from 45:59.526 --> 46:01.636 yours?" Here's the gimmick. 46:01.639 --> 46:06.979 What you don't know is on that computer screen words are being 46:06.980 --> 46:12.150 flashed like that but they're being flashed so fast it looks 46:12.145 --> 46:17.305 like that--You don't see anything--words like "corpse," 46:17.310 --> 46:21.060 "dead," "dying." The flashing of these 46:21.060 --> 46:24.150 subliminal words, "subliminal" meaning – a 46:24.153 --> 46:28.113 fancy term meaning below the level of consciousness, 46:28.110 --> 46:31.790 you don't know you're seeing them – has dramatic effects on 46:31.793 --> 46:33.823 how you answer those questions. 46:33.820 --> 46:39.530 People exposed to death primes become more nationalistic, 46:39.532 --> 46:44.532 more patriotic, less forgiving of other people, 46:44.530 --> 46:48.700 less liking of other races and people from other countries. 46:48.699 --> 46:51.499 Again the claim--the explanation for why this is so 46:51.501 --> 46:54.361 is something which we'll get to in another class. 46:54.360 --> 46:58.180 The point now is simply to illustrate that these sort of 46:58.182 --> 47:02.282 things can have--that things you aren't aware of can have an 47:02.283 --> 47:04.233 effect on how you think. 47:04.230 --> 47:09.990 The final example I'll give of this is a short demonstration. 47:09.989 --> 47:13.199 To do this, I'm going to cut the class in half at this point 47:13.199 --> 47:15.429 so you'll be on this side of the class, 47:15.429 --> 47:20.959 the right side, my right, and this will be on 47:20.958 --> 47:26.488 the left side, and I simply want everybody to 47:26.487 --> 47:30.757 think about somebody you love. 47:30.760 --> 47:33.600 So, think about somebody you love, your girlfriend, 47:33.599 --> 47:35.699 your boyfriend, your mom, your dad. 47:35.700 --> 47:37.290 Think about somebody you love. 47:37.290 --> 47:40.900 Just think. Okay. 47:40.900 --> 47:45.060 Now, on this screen is going to be instructions but I want to 47:45.056 --> 47:48.586 give the instructions to this half of the class . 47:48.590 --> 47:51.450 I'm going to ask everybody in this half of the class please 47:51.449 --> 47:53.519 either turn your head or shut your eyes. 47:53.520 --> 47:56.390 Okay? Teaching fellows too. 47:56.390 --> 48:02.390 Okay. And everybody on this half obey 48:02.385 --> 48:03.465 . Okay. 48:03.470 --> 48:05.230 Has everybody read that? 48:05.230 --> 48:14.250 Okay. Now, turn your head, this group. 48:14.250 --> 48:24.240 Now this group: Look at this and take a moment. 48:24.239 --> 48:29.229 You don't have to do it on paper but take a moment to do it 48:29.229 --> 48:31.269 in your head. You--Each group had 48:31.268 --> 48:32.698 instructions. Some people might have seen 48:32.700 --> 48:33.320 both instructions. 48:33.320 --> 48:39.290 Follow the instructions you got for you. 48:39.289 --> 48:45.679 Now, this was research done by Norbert Schwarz and here's the 48:45.679 --> 48:51.749 question I want you to ask yourself, "How much do you like 48:51.749 --> 48:54.869 this person?" And here's the effect: 48:54.872 --> 48:58.512 Half of you were asked to list three features of the person. 48:58.510 --> 49:01.070 Half of you were asked to list ten. 49:01.070 --> 49:03.940 The finding, which is not a subtle finding, 49:03.938 --> 49:08.108 is that liking goes up in the three group and liking goes down 49:08.105 --> 49:09.535 in the ten group. 49:09.540 --> 49:14.170 And here is why. I have to think about three 49:14.170 --> 49:21.590 positive features of somebody so I think about my girlfriend. 49:21.590 --> 49:22.400 I have a girlfriend. 49:22.400 --> 49:24.800 I think about my girlfriend, "but oh, she's smart, 49:24.796 --> 49:26.406 she's beautiful and she's kind. 49:26.410 --> 49:30.220 Good. How much do--What do I think of 49:30.217 --> 49:31.447 her? "Pretty, good, 49:31.451 --> 49:33.051 smart, beautiful, kind, smart, 49:33.048 --> 49:34.368 beautiful, oh, yeah." 49:34.369 --> 49:36.659 But the problem--;Now, Schwarz is clever though. 49:36.659 --> 49:39.239 He says, "List--" The other group gets ten positive 49:39.241 --> 49:40.791 features, "smart, beautiful, 49:40.789 --> 49:48.839 kind… really nice… good cook… punctual, 49:48.835 --> 49:54.865 smart… No, I mentioned that." 49:54.869 --> 49:58.779 The problem is nobody has ten positive features! 49:58.780 --> 50:03.760 And the effect of being asked to do ten positive features is 50:03.755 --> 50:05.775 people find this hard. 50:05.780 --> 50:08.620 And then those people, when asked, "How much do you 50:08.615 --> 50:09.745 like this person?" 50:09.750 --> 50:14.380 say, "Couldn't really make it that ten. 50:14.380 --> 50:16.890 I guess I don't like them very much." 50:16.889 --> 50:19.829 Now, the point of this illustration, 50:19.828 --> 50:24.108 again, is that it shows that you don't know this. 50:24.110 --> 50:27.580 Subjects who were asked to do ten positive features and then 50:27.583 --> 50:30.173 later ranked the person lower and then asked, 50:30.174 --> 50:32.534 "Why did you rank the person lower?" 50:32.530 --> 50:35.560 Don't say, "'Cause you told me to list ten." 50:35.559 --> 50:39.409 Typically, we are oblivious to these factors that change our 50:39.412 --> 50:43.462 points – what we like and what we dislike – and this is, 50:43.460 --> 50:46.880 in fact, a substantial and an important part of the study of 50:46.875 --> 50:49.615 psychology, and particularly, for instance, 50:49.615 --> 50:52.665 the study of racial and sexual prejudice. 50:52.670 --> 50:55.350 Where--One of the big findings from social psychology, 50:55.345 --> 50:57.965 and we'll devote almost an entire lecture to this, 50:57.969 --> 51:03.079 is that people have strong views about other races that 51:03.075 --> 51:08.745 they don't know about and that they don't know how to control 51:08.748 --> 51:12.178 their actions. So, to some extent, 51:12.184 --> 51:17.574 this rounds out Freud because to some extent the particulars 51:17.570 --> 51:22.500 of Freud are--for the most part have been rejected. 51:22.500 --> 51:26.970 But the general idea of Freud's actually been so successful both 51:26.968 --> 51:30.298 in the study of scientific psychology and in our 51:30.301 --> 51:33.211 interpretation of everyday life that, 51:33.210 --> 51:35.460 to some extent, Freud's been a victim of his 51:35.458 --> 51:38.248 own success. We tend to underestimate the 51:38.246 --> 51:42.576 importance of Freudian thought in everyday life because he's 51:42.580 --> 51:46.470 transformed our world view to such an extent that it's 51:46.473 --> 51:50.953 difficult for us to remember if there's any other way to think 51:50.954 --> 51:53.154 about it. So, to some extent, 51:53.146 --> 51:55.336 he's been the victim of his own success. 51:55.340 --> 51:59.190 We have time for some further questions about Freud and about 51:59.192 --> 52:01.442 scientific implications of Freud. 52:01.440 --> 52:07.450 52:07.449 --> 52:10.679 I took a class once on how to teach when I was a graduate 52:10.682 --> 52:12.912 student. And I just remember two things 52:12.913 --> 52:16.583 from this class. One thing is never grade in red 52:16.579 --> 52:18.989 pen. Those--People don't like that. 52:18.989 --> 52:21.199 The second thing is never ask any questions, 52:21.201 --> 52:23.671 because presumably it is very frightening to ask, 52:23.671 --> 52:25.691 "Any questions?" and people find it's 52:25.694 --> 52:28.174 intimidating. I'm supposed to ask, 52:28.168 --> 52:30.568 "What are your questions?" 52:30.570 --> 52:33.670 So, what are your questions? 52:33.670 --> 52:37.940 Yes, in back. Sorry. 52:37.940 --> 52:39.480 Student: Did Freud believe in 52:39.483 --> 52:41.203 [inaudible] Professor Paul Bloom: 52:41.203 --> 52:42.573 Did Freud believe in [inaudible] 52:42.570 --> 52:44.470 Student: Medication Professor Paul 52:44.466 --> 52:45.786 Bloom: Medication. 52:45.789 --> 52:48.709 Freud had an--It's a good question. 52:48.710 --> 52:50.710 The question was, "Does--did Freud believe in 52:50.712 --> 52:52.532 medication?" Medication, of course, 52:52.534 --> 52:55.824 being a major theme of how we deal with certain disorders now, 52:55.820 --> 52:58.460 particularly depression and anxiety disorders. 52:58.460 --> 53:01.440 On the one hand, Freud made his start as a 53:01.436 --> 53:05.416 neuroscientist. Freud studied the mind and the 53:05.421 --> 53:10.281 brain and was intensely interested in the neural basis 53:10.283 --> 53:12.763 of thought and behavior. 53:12.760 --> 53:14.670 But the answer to your question in the end is, 53:14.672 --> 53:16.222 "no." Although Freud was very 53:16.219 --> 53:19.369 sensitive to the brain basis of behavior, Freud was totally 53:19.369 --> 53:22.409 convinced that the method through which to cure disorders 53:22.411 --> 53:25.351 like depression and anxiety would not be medication but 53:25.345 --> 53:28.545 rather through the sort of talk therapy and insight. 53:28.550 --> 53:33.660 Moreover, modern therapists, including some people who 53:33.655 --> 53:37.795 aren't psychoanalytically defined, will say, 53:37.796 --> 53:40.406 "Look. These drugs are all well and 53:40.407 --> 53:43.347 good but what they do is they mask the symptoms." 53:43.349 --> 53:47.559 So, if you have panic attacks, say, it's true that drugs might 53:47.561 --> 53:51.221 make the panic attacks go away, but the panic attacks are 53:51.221 --> 53:52.991 actually not your real problem. 53:52.989 --> 53:56.459 And by making them go away you don't get to the root of your 53:56.461 --> 53:58.521 problem. So, the answer is both Freud 53:58.516 --> 54:01.706 and modern day psychoanalysts would think that medications are 54:01.710 --> 54:05.010 substantially overused in the treatment of mental disorders. 54:05.010 --> 54:07.810 Yes. Student: 54:07.812 --> 54:11.602 Are there any [inaudible] Professor Paul Bloom: 54:11.601 --> 54:14.391 The question is, "What about research on 54:14.390 --> 54:17.220 dreams?" "Dreams" is such a fun topic 54:17.217 --> 54:21.417 that I'm going to devote half a class to sleeping and dreams. 54:21.420 --> 54:23.910 So, for instance, I will answer the question 54:23.910 --> 54:25.880 "What is the most common dream?" 54:25.880 --> 54:28.800 I will also answer the question "Who thinks about sex more in 54:28.800 --> 54:31.380 dreams, men or women, and what proportion of--" Oh. 54:31.380 --> 54:33.200 There's so many great questions I will answer. 54:33.199 --> 54:36.589 Dreams from a Freudian standpoint. 54:36.590 --> 54:40.880 There's been some evidence that dreams do, and some often do, 54:40.878 --> 54:44.808 have some relationship to what you're thinking about and 54:44.808 --> 54:47.308 worrying about through the day. 54:47.309 --> 54:49.969 But the strong Freudian view about symbolism and wish 54:49.970 --> 54:52.480 fulfillment has not been supported by the study of 54:52.477 --> 54:53.037 dreams. 54:53.040 --> 54:56.640 54:56.640 --> 55:00.880 What are your other questions? 55:00.880 --> 55:03.880 Yes, whoever Erik is pointing to. 55:03.880 --> 55:05.080 Professor Paul Bloom: Purple shirt. 55:05.080 --> 55:07.950 Yes. Student: 55:07.946 --> 55:09.796 [inaudible]--Electra complex? 55:09.800 --> 55:11.590 Professor Paul Bloom: The Electra complex? 55:11.590 --> 55:16.020 The Electra complex is the penis envy story. 55:16.019 --> 55:19.389 Freud developed--This is a crude summary, 55:19.390 --> 55:23.180 but Freud developed the Oedipal complex, "Mom, 55:23.182 --> 55:25.122 I love Mommy, Dad." 55:25.119 --> 55:28.119 And then it's as if somebody reminded him, 55:28.121 --> 55:30.611 "Sigmund, there are also women." 55:30.610 --> 55:33.460 "Oh, yeah." And that story I told you with 55:33.460 --> 55:37.350 the penises and the penis envy and the replacement is sort of a 55:37.347 --> 55:40.417 very shortened version of the Electra complex. 55:40.420 --> 55:45.260 I think it's fair to say that the Electra complex was a sort 55:45.258 --> 55:50.178 of add-on to the main interest of Freud's Oedipal complex. 55:50.180 --> 55:52.370 One more, please. 55:52.370 --> 55:56.380 Yes. Student: 55:56.378 --> 56:02.198 [inaudible] Professor Paul Bloom: 56:02.197 --> 56:07.747 According to Freud, the--there's not a fixation in 56:07.752 --> 56:11.922 the stage, in the same sense as an oral or anal stage, 56:11.920 --> 56:14.560 but yes. The claim that Freud would make 56:14.560 --> 56:18.260 is that the woman's discovery that she lacks the penis plays a 56:18.261 --> 56:21.601 fundamental role later on determining her allegiances in 56:21.597 --> 56:25.417 life and in fact her own sexual preferences and interests. 56:25.420 --> 56:29.050 So, it's not the sort of thing that affects her just for a 56:29.045 --> 56:29.995 short period.