WEBVTT 00:01.370 --> 00:07.150 Professor Steven Smith: Today we start with Plato, 00:07.150 --> 00:10.970 Plato's Apology of Socrates. 00:10.970 --> 00:15.030 This is the best introductory text to the study of Political 00:15.034 --> 00:16.554 Philosophy. Why? 00:16.550 --> 00:19.570 Let me give you two reasons. 00:19.570 --> 00:24.200 First, it shows Socrates, the reputed founder of our 00:24.201 --> 00:28.471 discipline, the founder of Political Science, 00:28.470 --> 00:32.520 and I will say a little bit more about that later on today, 00:32.518 --> 00:35.588 explaining himself and justifying himself, 00:35.590 --> 00:41.050 justifying his way of life before a jury of his peers. 00:41.050 --> 00:45.660 It shows Socrates speaking in a public forum, 00:45.663 --> 00:51.643 defending the utility of philosophy for political life. 00:51.640 --> 00:55.690 And, secondly, the Apology demonstrates 00:55.693 --> 01:00.383 also the vulnerability of political philosophy in its 01:00.377 --> 01:05.117 relation to the city, in its relation to political 01:05.117 --> 01:08.647 power. The Apology puts on 01:08.654 --> 01:14.264 trial not merely a particular individual, Socrates, 01:14.258 --> 01:19.748 but puts on trial the very idea of philosophy. 01:19.750 --> 01:23.940 From its very beginnings, philosophy and the city, 01:23.939 --> 01:29.149 philosophy and political life, have stood in a sort of tension 01:29.154 --> 01:30.954 with one another. 01:30.950 --> 01:33.920 Socrates is charged, as we will see, 01:33.920 --> 01:38.840 by the city for corrupting the youth and impiety toward the 01:38.842 --> 01:41.772 Gods, right? In other words, 01:41.770 --> 01:46.900 he's accused of treason, a high capital offense. 01:46.900 --> 01:51.580 No other work of which I am aware helps us better think 01:51.584 --> 01:53.584 through the conflict. 01:53.580 --> 01:57.110 I would even say, the necessary and inevitable 01:57.113 --> 02:02.143 conflict, between the freedom of the mind and the requirements of 02:02.138 --> 02:05.638 political life. Are these two things, 02:05.635 --> 02:11.365 are these two goods as it were, freedom of mind and political 02:11.365 --> 02:14.935 life, are they compatible or are they 02:14.937 --> 02:18.377 necessarily at odds with one another? 02:18.379 --> 02:20.819 That seems to me to be, in some ways, 02:20.815 --> 02:24.735 the fundamental question that the Apology asks us to 02:24.740 --> 02:25.620 consider. 02:25.620 --> 02:29.420 02:29.420 --> 02:34.220 Okay? Now for generations, 02:34.216 --> 02:40.276 the Apology has stood out as a symbol for the 02:40.277 --> 02:44.077 violation of free expression. 02:44.080 --> 02:49.390 It sets the case for the individual committed to the 02:49.394 --> 02:55.024 examined life over and against a bigoted and prejudiced 02:55.021 --> 02:58.931 multitude. The clearest statement of this 02:58.927 --> 03:02.597 view of, again, the individual set against the 03:02.598 --> 03:06.758 mob in some ways, is found in a work of a very 03:06.764 --> 03:11.474 famous civil libertarian of the nineteenth century, 03:11.470 --> 03:14.920 a man named John Stuart Mill. 03:14.919 --> 03:18.669 In his famous tract called simply On Liberty, 03:18.671 --> 03:23.311 Mill wrote, "Mankind can hardly be too often reminded that there 03:23.305 --> 03:27.345 was once a man named Socrates between whom and the legal 03:27.351 --> 03:31.101 authorities of his time there took place a memorable 03:31.102 --> 03:33.692 collision." Over and again, 03:33.686 --> 03:37.086 and Mill is a kind of a famous case of this, 03:37.087 --> 03:41.827 Socrates has been described as a martyr for freedom of speech 03:41.832 --> 03:45.712 and he has been somewhat extravagantly compared at 03:45.707 --> 03:50.457 various times to Jesus, to Galileo, to Sir Thomas More 03:50.456 --> 03:55.126 and has been used as a role model for thinkers and political 03:55.129 --> 03:58.139 activists from Henry David Thoreau, 03:58.139 --> 04:01.769 to Gandhi, to Martin Luther King. 04:01.770 --> 04:07.660 So, Socrates has become a very central symbol of political 04:07.661 --> 04:12.521 resistance and resistance to political power, 04:12.520 --> 04:20.450 and, of the dangers to the individual of unchecked rule. 04:20.449 --> 04:24.539 But, this reading of the Apology as you might say, 04:24.541 --> 04:28.711 is a kind of brief for freedom of expression and a warning 04:28.705 --> 04:32.645 against the dangers of censorship and persecution. 04:32.649 --> 04:35.789 Although this has been enormously influential over the 04:35.790 --> 04:39.050 centuries, at least over the last century and a half, 04:39.050 --> 04:44.460 you have to ask yourself: is this the reading that Plato 04:44.458 --> 04:47.748 intended? Did Plato want us to read the 04:47.751 --> 04:49.201 dialogue this way? 04:49.200 --> 04:52.260 04:52.259 --> 04:57.969 As a teacher of mine used to say, "You read Plato your way, 04:57.969 --> 05:00.429 I'll read him his way." 05:00.430 --> 05:06.090 But, how did Plato intend this dialogue to be understood? 05:06.089 --> 05:10.379 Note that Socrates never defends himself by reference to 05:10.379 --> 05:13.499 the doctrine of unlimited free speech. 05:13.500 --> 05:15.720 He doesn't make that claim. 05:15.720 --> 05:21.940 He doesn't make the claim about the general utility of freedom 05:21.937 --> 05:24.177 or unlimited speech. 05:24.180 --> 05:29.980 Rather, he maintains as he puts it near the end of the defense 05:29.975 --> 05:35.195 speech, that the examined life is alone worth living. 05:35.199 --> 05:38.379 Only those, in other words, engaged in the continual 05:38.375 --> 05:40.675 struggle to clarify their thinking, 05:40.680 --> 05:45.880 to remove sources of contradiction and incoherence, 05:45.880 --> 05:51.810 only those people can be said to live worthwhile lives. 05:51.810 --> 05:55.140 "The unexamined life is not worth living." 05:55.139 --> 06:00.559 Socrates confidently, defiantly asserts to his 06:00.564 --> 06:04.064 listeners, to his audience. 06:04.060 --> 06:06.600 Nothing else matters for him. 06:06.600 --> 06:10.710 His, in other words seems to be a highly personal, 06:10.712 --> 06:14.072 in many ways, highly individual quest for 06:14.068 --> 06:18.428 self perfection and not a doctrine about the value of 06:18.432 --> 06:21.372 freedom of speech in general. 06:21.370 --> 06:25.400 06:25.399 --> 06:28.729 But, even though you might say, Socrates seems to be engaged 06:28.726 --> 06:32.106 in, again, this highly personal quest for self perfection, 06:32.110 --> 06:34.930 there is something, which one can't avoid, 06:34.926 --> 06:38.636 deeply political about the Apology and about his 06:38.636 --> 06:41.746 teaching. At the heart of the dialogue or 06:41.750 --> 06:45.260 at the heart of this speech rather is a quarrel, 06:45.259 --> 06:48.629 a quarrel with his accusers over the question, 06:48.632 --> 06:53.932 never stated directly perhaps, but over the question of who 06:53.927 --> 07:00.137 has the right to educate future citizens and statesmen of the 07:00.137 --> 07:04.377 city of Athens. Socrates' defense speech, 07:04.378 --> 07:09.988 like every platonic dialogue, is ultimately a dialogue about 07:09.992 --> 07:13.182 education. Who has the right to teach, 07:13.176 --> 07:15.336 who has the right to educate? 07:15.339 --> 07:19.639 This is in many ways for Socrates the fundamental 07:19.641 --> 07:22.301 political question of all times. 07:22.300 --> 07:27.130 It is the question of really who governs or maybe put another 07:27.128 --> 07:30.828 way, who should govern, who ought to govern. 07:30.829 --> 07:36.089 Remember also that the city that brought Socrates to trial 07:36.093 --> 07:40.993 was not just any city, it was a peculiar kind of city, 07:40.987 --> 07:44.197 it was Athens. And Athens was, 07:44.203 --> 07:49.073 until only fairly recent times in human history, 07:49.071 --> 07:53.941 the most famous democracy that ever existed. 07:53.940 --> 07:56.160 I say fairly recent times until, you know, 07:56.163 --> 07:57.523 the American democracy. 07:57.519 --> 08:00.699 But it was, until at least the eighteenth or nineteenth 08:00.700 --> 08:03.940 century, the most famous democracy that ever existed. 08:03.939 --> 08:07.699 The speech of Socrates before the jury is perhaps the most 08:07.695 --> 08:10.985 famous attempt to put democracy itself on trial. 08:10.990 --> 08:13.250 It is not merely Socrates who is on trial. 08:13.250 --> 08:17.800 Socrates intends to put the democracy of Athens itself on 08:17.800 --> 08:19.990 trial. Not only does the 08:19.994 --> 08:25.634 Apology force Socrates to defend himself before the city 08:25.628 --> 08:29.388 of Athens, but Socrates puts the city of 08:29.388 --> 08:34.458 Athens on trial and makes it defend itself before the high 08:34.455 --> 08:36.495 court of philosophy. 08:36.500 --> 08:42.190 So, the ensuing debate within the dialogue can be read as a 08:42.186 --> 08:46.496 struggle again over who has title to rule. 08:46.500 --> 08:47.620 Is it the people? 08:47.620 --> 08:50.710 Is it the court of Athens, the dẽmos, 08:50.712 --> 08:53.532 to use the Greek word for "the people," 08:53.529 --> 08:57.509 or is it Socrates the philosopher-king who should be 08:57.506 --> 09:00.856 vested with ultimate political authority? 09:00.860 --> 09:03.610 That is, of course, the quest and it's taken up in 09:03.608 --> 09:06.188 a very vivid way, much more explicit way in the 09:06.188 --> 09:09.348 Republic, but it runs throughout the 09:09.351 --> 09:13.201 Apology and you can't really understand the 09:13.199 --> 09:17.829 Apology unless you see that this is the question that 09:17.831 --> 09:20.581 Socrates is posing throughout. 09:20.580 --> 09:31.750 09:31.750 --> 09:35.420 So, I have some names put on the board and some dates, 09:35.417 --> 09:39.707 because I want to talk a little bit about the political context 09:39.706 --> 09:41.156 of this dialogue. 09:41.159 --> 09:43.679 One can of course read, there's nothing wrong with 09:43.684 --> 09:45.544 reading the Apology, again, 09:45.539 --> 09:50.319 as a kind of enduring symbol of the plight of the, 09:50.317 --> 09:54.607 you might say, the just individual confronted 09:54.607 --> 09:59.477 with an unjust mob, or an unjust political rule. 09:59.480 --> 10:03.340 It's, again, a question that Plato takes up 10:03.338 --> 10:08.478 in the Republic when a character in the book named 10:08.483 --> 10:12.923 Glaucon who happens to be, as it were, the brother of 10:12.922 --> 10:16.682 Plato, asks Socrates if it is actually better to be just or 10:16.677 --> 10:19.587 simply to have the reputation for justice? 10:19.590 --> 10:24.070 And Socrates says it is better to be just, even if that results 10:24.069 --> 10:26.019 in persecution and death. 10:26.019 --> 10:29.919 But the trial is not, again, just an enduring symbol 10:29.923 --> 10:34.843 of justice versus injustice, it is an actual historical 10:34.844 --> 10:40.604 event that takes place in a particular moment of political 10:40.598 --> 10:45.758 time and this bears, I think, decisively on how we 10:45.760 --> 10:51.540 come to understand the case both for and against Socrates. 10:51.539 --> 10:54.119 Let me talk a little bit about that context. 10:54.120 --> 10:58.700 10:58.700 --> 11:05.180 The trial of Socrates takes place in the year 399 and all of 11:05.184 --> 11:10.024 these refer to before the common era, 399. 11:10.019 --> 11:18.069 Some of you will know that that trial follows very quickly upon 11:18.068 --> 11:23.778 the heals of the famous Peloponnesian War. 11:23.779 --> 11:27.749 This was the war related by Socrates' slightly older 11:27.748 --> 11:30.778 contemporary, a man named Thucydides who 11:30.782 --> 11:34.442 wrote the history of the Peloponnesian War, 11:34.440 --> 11:38.840 a war that took place between the two great powers of the 11:38.844 --> 11:43.804 Greek world between the Spartans and their allies and Athens and 11:43.800 --> 11:47.760 its allies. The Athens that fought this war 11:47.760 --> 11:52.960 against Sparta was an Athens at the height of its political 11:52.962 --> 11:58.252 power and prestige under the leadership of its first citizen 11:58.254 --> 12:01.664 Pericles, whose name is also up there at 12:01.657 --> 12:03.927 the very top. Under Pericles, 12:03.934 --> 12:07.254 Athens had built the famous Acropolis. 12:07.250 --> 12:12.750 It had established Athens as a mighty and redoubtable naval 12:12.751 --> 12:17.871 power and it created an unprecedented level of artistic 12:17.873 --> 12:23.553 and cultural life, even today known simply as 12:23.552 --> 12:26.042 Periclean Athens. 12:26.039 --> 12:31.199 But Athens was also something completely unprecedented in the 12:31.201 --> 12:33.611 world, it was a democracy. 12:33.610 --> 12:38.320 And, again, even today the expression "Athenian democracy" 12:38.322 --> 12:42.952 connotes an ideal of the most complete form of democratic 12:42.951 --> 12:46.011 government that has ever existed. 12:46.010 --> 12:48.540 "We are the school of Hellas." 12:48.539 --> 12:53.489 This is what Pericles boasts to his listeners in the famous 12:53.491 --> 12:56.651 funeral oration told by Thucydides. 12:56.649 --> 12:59.859 "We throw our city open to the world and never exclude 12:59.858 --> 13:03.488 foreigners from any opportunity of learning and observing, 13:03.490 --> 13:08.720 even though the eyes of an enemy may profit from our 13:08.716 --> 13:13.016 liberality," Pericles boasts once again. 13:13.019 --> 13:19.259 The question maybe you want to ask about this is how could the 13:19.264 --> 13:25.514 world's first freest and most open society sentence to death a 13:25.509 --> 13:31.649 man who spoke freely about his own ignorance and professed to 13:31.652 --> 13:38.002 care for nothing so much as virtue and human excellence? 13:38.000 --> 13:41.980 Now, at the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War, 13:41.977 --> 13:45.687 Socrates was just under 40 years of age. 13:45.690 --> 13:51.560 And, we learned from the speech that Socrates himself served in 13:51.563 --> 13:56.493 the military and served in defense of his country. 13:56.490 --> 14:01.350 The war, the Peloponnesian War, was fought as you can see over 14:01.350 --> 14:07.230 a considerable length of time, on and off for almost a period 14:07.226 --> 14:14.206 of 30 years and was concluded in the year 404 with the defeat of 14:14.211 --> 14:19.221 Athens, the installing of a pro-Spartan 14:19.223 --> 14:26.403 oligarchy, a pro-Spartan regime known simply as the Thirty 14:26.399 --> 14:31.309 Tyrants who ruled Athens for a year. 14:31.309 --> 14:33.919 The next year, 403, the Tyrants, 14:33.924 --> 14:38.314 The Thirty as they were called, were driven out and a 14:38.308 --> 14:43.788 democratic government was once again reestablished in Athens. 14:43.789 --> 14:48.339 Just three years later, three men named Anytus, 14:48.335 --> 14:52.875 Meletus and Lycos, all of whom had been part of 14:52.881 --> 14:58.121 the democratic resistance movement against the Spartan 14:58.118 --> 15:02.148 oligarchy, brought charges against 15:02.153 --> 15:04.743 Socrates. The charges against him were: 15:04.735 --> 15:07.505 corrupting the young and disbelieving in the Gods that 15:07.505 --> 15:08.755 the city believes in. 15:08.759 --> 15:12.159 So, you can see that the charges were brought by people 15:12.163 --> 15:16.333 who were themselves, again, part of a democratic 15:16.331 --> 15:22.201 resistance movement and the names of Anytus and Meletus as 15:22.204 --> 15:27.394 you've read, you know, appear in the speech 15:27.389 --> 15:30.419 itself. So, the charges brought against 15:30.421 --> 15:33.481 Socrates did not simply grow out of thin air. 15:33.480 --> 15:36.080 Maybe we should rephrase the question. 15:36.080 --> 15:40.650 Not why did the Athenians bring Socrates to trial? 15:40.649 --> 15:44.329 But, why did they permit him to carry on his practice of 15:44.326 --> 15:48.266 challenging the law and the authority of the law for as long 15:48.270 --> 15:49.340 as they did? 15:49.340 --> 15:53.000 15:53.000 --> 16:00.340 Okay? Add to this the fact that when 16:00.338 --> 16:06.288 Socrates was brought to trial again, the democracy had only 16:06.290 --> 16:12.350 recently been reestablished but that many friends and former 16:12.345 --> 16:18.195 students of Socrates had been themselves implicated in the 16:18.195 --> 16:22.295 rule of the hated Thirty Tyrants. 16:22.299 --> 16:26.729 Among the members of The Thirty was a man named Critias, 16:26.728 --> 16:31.478 and there's actually a platonic dialogue named after him, 16:31.480 --> 16:35.150 a man named Critias, who was a relative of Plato's 16:35.149 --> 16:39.789 and another man named Charmides whose name is also the title of 16:39.792 --> 16:44.802 a platonic dialogue, Charmides who is Plato's uncle. 16:44.799 --> 16:49.059 Plato himself, he tells us much later in life 16:49.057 --> 16:54.567 in his famous Seventh Letter, Plato himself was invited by 16:54.573 --> 17:00.383 his relatives to help to form a part of the government of The 17:00.379 --> 17:05.869 Thirty and later Plato said, "That so abhorrent did they 17:05.872 --> 17:10.852 become that they made the older democracy look like the Golden 17:10.847 --> 17:13.747 Age." So, the point I'm suggesting is 17:13.748 --> 17:17.228 that many of Socrates' students and associates, 17:17.230 --> 17:23.050 including Plato himself, had some connection with this 17:23.046 --> 17:30.176 oligarchical government that had ruled Athens for a brief time. 17:30.180 --> 17:33.690 And, Socrates was himself not above suspicion. 17:33.690 --> 17:40.480 We often, don't we even today yes, we often judge teachers by 17:40.483 --> 17:45.013 their students, by the company they keep, 17:45.012 --> 17:50.532 yes, don't we? No one is above suspicion. 17:50.529 --> 17:54.759 Socrates himself had been a close associate of a man named 17:54.762 --> 17:58.772 Alcibiades, probably the most prominent Athenian in the 17:58.772 --> 18:01.002 generation after Pericles. 18:01.000 --> 18:06.130 Alcibiades was the man who engineered the disastrous 18:06.127 --> 18:11.857 Sicilian expedition and later ended his life as a defector 18:11.859 --> 18:13.869 going to Sparta. 18:13.870 --> 18:17.120 18:17.119 --> 18:21.609 His complex relationship with Socrates is, by the way, 18:21.605 --> 18:26.935 recounted in the drunken speech that Alcibiades gives in Plato's 18:26.936 --> 18:29.556 dialogue, Symposium. 18:29.559 --> 18:33.549 So, you can see that the trial of Socrates, the little speech 18:33.545 --> 18:38.335 that you have read, takes place in the shadow of 18:38.335 --> 18:41.965 military defeat, of resistance, 18:41.972 --> 18:45.612 of conspiracy and betrayal. 18:45.609 --> 18:50.819 Socrates was 70 years old at the time of the trial. 18:50.819 --> 18:56.089 So, this was a highly charged political environment. 18:56.089 --> 19:03.619 Far more volatile than for example the kind of partisan 19:03.618 --> 19:10.308 quarrels we see today in our republic, I hope. 19:10.310 --> 19:14.320 19:14.320 --> 19:15.500 Okay? 19:15.500 --> 19:19.080 19:19.079 --> 19:22.639 So, let me talk about the accusations, let me move from 19:22.636 --> 19:26.386 the political context of the speech to the accusations. 19:26.390 --> 19:30.690 And, I say accusations because there, as you read, 19:30.691 --> 19:35.961 if you read closely you will see there were actually two sets 19:35.957 --> 19:39.817 of accusations leveled against Socrates. 19:39.819 --> 19:43.829 Early in the speech Socrates claims that his current accusers 19:43.827 --> 19:46.977 Anytus and Meletus, again, the democratic 19:46.983 --> 19:51.073 resistance fighters, the charges they have brought 19:51.073 --> 19:55.673 against him are themselves the descendants of an earlier 19:55.665 --> 20:00.085 generation of accusers who were responsible for, 20:00.089 --> 20:04.249 he claims, maligning and creating an unfavorable 20:04.251 --> 20:06.821 prejudice against Socrates. 20:06.819 --> 20:11.799 "These charges are not new," he tells the jury, 20:11.799 --> 20:17.969 and many members of the jury, he says, will have formed an 20:17.969 --> 20:21.649 unfavorable opinion about him. 20:21.650 --> 20:24.520 This was the day before there were intense forms of jury 20:24.522 --> 20:27.712 selection, where they would ask people: "Do you have a view of 20:27.708 --> 20:30.248 the case?" Many of the jurors would have 20:30.253 --> 20:33.003 known Socrates, or certainly would have heard 20:33.004 --> 20:36.194 of him and, he says, would have had already 20:36.189 --> 20:40.209 an unfavorable opinion formed about him by this earlier 20:40.212 --> 20:42.152 generation of accusers. 20:42.150 --> 20:46.940 Reference he makes to a comic poet, yes, a comic poet, 20:46.941 --> 20:51.911 an unequivocal reference to the playwright Aristophanes, 20:51.913 --> 20:55.713 whose name I have put up on the board. 20:55.710 --> 20:58.810 Aristophanes is the one who created the original or the 20:58.807 --> 21:00.927 initial prejudice against Socrates. 21:00.930 --> 21:04.560 What was that prejudice that Aristophanes, 21:04.563 --> 21:07.313 this comic poet, had created? 21:07.309 --> 21:12.339 The allusion to Aristophanes and the comic poet is a part of 21:12.343 --> 21:16.783 what Plato calls in Book X of the Republic, 21:16.779 --> 21:21.549 the old quarrel between philosophy and poetry. 21:21.549 --> 21:25.319 This quarrel is a staple of Plato's dialogues, 21:25.322 --> 21:28.172 is a central theme, not only of the 21:28.172 --> 21:32.702 Symposium in which Aristophanes and Socrates are 21:32.698 --> 21:37.978 actually shown at the same dinner table with one another. 21:37.980 --> 21:41.380 But, it is also a key feature of the Republic which we 21:41.375 --> 21:44.485 will be reading in a week, where Socrates offers an 21:44.487 --> 21:47.727 elaborate proposal for the censorship and control of 21:47.733 --> 21:50.443 poetry, if it is to be made compatible 21:50.443 --> 21:53.143 with the demands of political justice. 21:53.140 --> 21:58.180 In fact, in a way you cannot understand the Republic 21:58.176 --> 22:03.386 unless you understand the poetic backdrop to it and Socrates' 22:03.387 --> 22:08.417 long standing engagement with the poetic tradition and this 22:08.423 --> 22:13.723 back and forth between himself and the man he calls this comic 22:13.721 --> 22:16.921 poet. The core of this quarrel 22:16.921 --> 22:21.841 between the philosopher and the poet, between Socrates and 22:21.839 --> 22:26.839 Aristophanes is not just an aesthetic judgment or it is not 22:26.844 --> 22:30.214 simply an aesthetic quarrel it is, 22:30.210 --> 22:34.370 again, deeply political or at least has something very 22:34.371 --> 22:36.021 political about it. 22:36.019 --> 22:41.099 It gets to the essence of the question of who is best equipped 22:41.103 --> 22:46.273 to educate future generations of citizens and civic leaders. 22:46.269 --> 22:51.859 Are the philosophers or are the poets, you might say, 22:51.855 --> 22:57.325 the true legislators for mankind, if you want to use 22:57.334 --> 22:59.594 Shelley's dictum? 22:59.589 --> 23:03.969 Which one legislates for mankind at the time of Socrates? 23:03.970 --> 23:09.010 The Greeks already had a century's long tradition of 23:09.014 --> 23:13.374 poetic education, going back centuries to the 23:13.367 --> 23:19.397 time of Homer and Hesiod that set out certain exemplary models 23:19.401 --> 23:23.161 of heroic virtue and civic life. 23:23.160 --> 23:30.910 The Homeric epics were to the Greek world what the Bible is to 23:30.909 --> 23:36.569 our world that is to say, in some respects the ultimate 23:36.568 --> 23:41.328 authority, regarding the way of the Gods, their relation to the 23:41.332 --> 23:46.022 world and the type of virtues appropriate to human beings. 23:46.019 --> 23:50.649 The virtues endorsed by the poetic tradition of which 23:50.647 --> 23:54.917 Aristophanes is the great representative here, 23:54.920 --> 23:56.910 the great inheritor and representative, 23:56.911 --> 23:59.951 the virtues of this tradition were the virtues of a warrior 23:59.951 --> 24:04.431 culture, of war-like peoples and men at 24:04.428 --> 24:07.238 war. These were the qualities that 24:07.240 --> 24:11.210 had guided the Greeks for centuries and contributed to 24:11.208 --> 24:12.928 their rise to power. 24:12.930 --> 24:17.260 It contributed to Athens' as well as Sparta's rise to 24:17.255 --> 24:20.745 greatness from a small dispersed people, 24:20.750 --> 24:24.660 to a great world power and, again, allowed them to achieve 24:24.660 --> 24:29.610 a level of artistic, intellectual and political 24:29.610 --> 24:35.300 accomplishment akin to Renaissance Florence, 24:35.300 --> 24:40.990 Elizabethan England and Thirties Weimar. 24:40.990 --> 24:45.660 So, what is at stake in this quarrel between Socrates and the 24:45.661 --> 24:48.621 poetic tradition that he alludes to? 24:48.620 --> 24:51.660 24:51.660 --> 24:57.670 First, Socrates' manner of teaching is markedly different 24:57.673 --> 25:00.253 from the poets, right? 25:00.250 --> 25:04.090 Does anyone know here the opening line of the 25:04.090 --> 25:07.120 Iliad? Homer's Iliad, 25:07.118 --> 25:09.818 does anyone know the first line? 25:09.819 --> 25:17.729 Anyone remember that from high school? 25:17.730 --> 25:21.560 "Sing Goddess the wrath of Achilles," right? 25:21.559 --> 25:24.289 "Sing Goddess the wrath of Achilles." 25:24.290 --> 25:26.900 The poets are oracular, right? 25:26.900 --> 25:32.350 They call on Gods and Goddesses to inspire them with song, 25:32.351 --> 25:37.991 to fill them with inspiration to tell stories of people with 25:37.994 --> 25:42.494 super-human strength and courage and anger. 25:42.490 --> 25:44.280 By contrast, you could say, 25:44.278 --> 25:47.098 the method of Socrates is not oracular. 25:47.100 --> 25:50.960 It is not story telling; it is conversational, 25:50.956 --> 25:55.586 it is argumentative, if you want to use the word he 25:55.592 --> 25:58.932 applies to it, it is dialectical. 25:58.930 --> 26:04.420 Socrates makes arguments and he wants others to engage with him, 26:04.421 --> 26:09.301 to discover which argument can best withstand the test of 26:09.303 --> 26:12.183 rational scrutiny and debate. 26:12.180 --> 26:15.050 There are no arguments in Homer's Iliad or 26:15.045 --> 26:18.435 Odyssey. You hear strong and compelling 26:18.443 --> 26:20.513 stories but no arguments. 26:20.509 --> 26:22.489 Socrates makes, in other words, 26:22.491 --> 26:26.391 continual questioning and not the telling of stories and the 26:26.388 --> 26:31.118 recitation of verses, the essence of this new 26:31.118 --> 26:33.928 political education. 26:33.930 --> 26:37.990 He questions the methods of teaching of the poets. 26:37.990 --> 26:42.270 But, secondly, again, Homer and the poets sing 26:42.274 --> 26:44.944 the virtues of men at war. 26:44.940 --> 26:49.960 Socrates wants to replace the warrior citizen with a new kind 26:49.955 --> 26:53.465 of citizen, a whole new set, you might say, 26:53.467 --> 26:55.387 of citizen virtues. 26:55.390 --> 26:58.950 The new Socratic citizen, let's call him that for a 26:58.947 --> 27:03.497 moment, the new Socratic citizen may have some features in common 27:03.500 --> 27:05.990 with the older Homeric warrior. 27:05.990 --> 27:10.810 But, Socrates ultimately wants to replace military combat with 27:10.814 --> 27:13.694 a new kind of, you might call it, 27:13.688 --> 27:16.368 verbal facility, verbal combat, 27:16.370 --> 27:21.910 in which again the person with the best argument is declared to 27:21.911 --> 27:24.911 be victorious. The person with the best 27:24.913 --> 27:27.143 argument, let the best argument prevail. 27:27.140 --> 27:32.330 The famed Socratic method of argumentation is basically all 27:32.328 --> 27:37.428 that remains of the older pre-Socratic culture of struggle 27:37.428 --> 27:41.688 and combat. The new Socratic citizen is to 27:41.693 --> 27:46.273 be trained in the art of argument and dialectic, 27:46.274 --> 27:51.834 and we will talk a little later about what that means. 27:51.829 --> 27:58.959 So, it is a challenger to the poets and all they stand for, 27:58.955 --> 28:06.195 the century-long tradition of poetic education that Socrates 28:06.203 --> 28:11.513 asserts himself, that Socrates presents himself. 28:11.509 --> 28:17.819 The Apology shows Socrates as offering a new model 28:17.821 --> 28:22.331 of citizenship, a new kind of citizen. 28:22.330 --> 28:26.380 28:26.380 --> 28:30.890 His challenge to the poets is in a way the basis for the 28:30.893 --> 28:34.343 resentment that is built up against him, 28:34.339 --> 28:39.379 in that Aristophanes and what he calls the earlier accusers 28:39.380 --> 28:41.380 have brought to bear. 28:41.380 --> 28:46.110 In fact, you might say, so seriously was Socrates taken 28:46.114 --> 28:51.514 by Aristophanes and the poets, that Aristophanes devoted an 28:51.513 --> 28:57.263 entire play, he wrote an entire play, about Socrates called the 28:57.255 --> 29:01.055 Clouds, devoted to debunking and 29:01.058 --> 29:05.048 ridicule Socrates' profession of learning. 29:05.049 --> 29:08.679 Aristophanes' play sometimes is even included in certain 29:08.675 --> 29:11.175 editions of the book you're reading, 29:11.180 --> 29:14.090 like this one, it has the edition of 29:14.094 --> 29:18.094 Aristophanes' Clouds in it, along with the 29:18.092 --> 29:21.092 Apology and Crito. 29:21.089 --> 29:25.189 The existence of that play shows to all of us just how 29:25.192 --> 29:29.062 seriously Socrates was taken by the greatest of his 29:29.063 --> 29:32.163 contemporaries and Aristophanes was, 29:32.160 --> 29:35.720 along with Sophocles and Euripides and others, 29:35.720 --> 29:39.360 among the greatest of the Greek playwrights. 29:39.359 --> 29:41.479 The mockery, you might say, 29:41.475 --> 29:45.375 mockery of Socrates, remains one of the sincerest 29:45.380 --> 29:48.500 forms of flattery; they took him very seriously. 29:48.500 --> 29:52.280 29:52.279 --> 29:55.269 Let me just say something about the Clouds, 29:55.267 --> 29:57.887 this comic play, this satire on Socrates, 29:57.890 --> 30:03.390 because it is part of that initial accusation that Socrates 30:03.386 --> 30:06.226 says is leveled against him. 30:06.230 --> 30:09.690 Here, Aristophanes presents Socrates as an investigator, 30:09.693 --> 30:12.153 and this is part of the first charge, 30:12.150 --> 30:15.800 remember an investigator of the things aloft and the things 30:15.799 --> 30:19.069 under the earth and who makes the weaker argument the 30:19.071 --> 30:22.481 stronger. That's the argument that 30:22.475 --> 30:27.535 Socrates says Aristophanes brings against him. 30:27.540 --> 30:31.600 30:31.599 --> 30:35.899 In this play, Socrates is presented as the 30:35.900 --> 30:40.730 head, the leader, the director of what we might 30:40.726 --> 30:47.016 think of as the first think tank known to human history. 30:47.019 --> 30:52.539 It's called in the play itself the Phrontisterion which means, 30:52.538 --> 30:57.968 or is sometimes translated as the Thinkery or the Thinketeria 30:57.966 --> 31:02.396 or simply a kind of think tank where fathers, 31:02.400 --> 31:05.570 Athenian fathers, bring their sons to be 31:05.566 --> 31:09.946 indoctrinated into the mysteries of Socratic wisdom. 31:09.950 --> 31:13.390 And in the play Socrates is shown hovering, 31:13.392 --> 31:17.982 flying above the stage in a basket in order to be able to 31:17.981 --> 31:22.451 better observe the clouds, the things aloft, right? 31:22.450 --> 31:25.520 But, also in many ways symbolizing Socrates', 31:25.519 --> 31:28.309 at least on the Aristophanes' account, 31:28.309 --> 31:32.129 Socrates' detachment from the things down here on earth, 31:32.127 --> 31:35.317 the things that concern his fellow citizens. 31:35.319 --> 31:40.639 Socrates is a kind of what in German people would call 31:40.641 --> 31:42.651 Luftmensch. 31:42.650 --> 31:47.150 He's a man up in the air, you know, he's so detached, 31:47.145 --> 31:50.685 he doesn't have his feet on the ground. 31:50.690 --> 31:55.710 And Socrates is shown not only mocking the Gods in doing this, 31:55.707 --> 32:00.887 but he is shown by Aristophanes to teach incest and to teach all 32:00.890 --> 32:04.510 of the things that violate every decent, 32:04.509 --> 32:08.669 human taboo--incest, the beating of one's parents, 32:08.671 --> 32:11.051 all these kinds of things. 32:11.049 --> 32:16.539 Socrates is presented as exhibiting kind of a corrosive 32:16.541 --> 32:22.851 skepticism which is at the core of Aristophanes' charge against 32:22.846 --> 32:26.236 him. To make a long story short, 32:26.244 --> 32:30.934 the play concludes with Socrates' think tank being 32:30.934 --> 32:35.724 burned to the ground by a disgruntled disciple. 32:35.720 --> 32:40.030 An object lesson for all later professors, I would say, 32:40.032 --> 32:41.712 who teach nonsense. 32:41.710 --> 32:46.530 32:46.530 --> 32:49.220 Right? Don't get any ideas. 32:49.220 --> 32:52.640 32:52.640 --> 32:56.720 Take a match to the department. 32:56.720 --> 32:59.050 So, how accurate is that picture of Socrates, 32:59.051 --> 33:01.971 the man who investigates the things aloft and the things 33:01.967 --> 33:03.077 under the ground? 33:03.079 --> 33:07.449 The Clouds was written in 423 when Socrates was in his 33:07.447 --> 33:12.027 mid-forties and the Aristophanic Socrates is essentially what we 33:12.033 --> 33:14.293 call a natural philosopher. 33:14.289 --> 33:17.169 Again, investigating the things aloft, under the ground. 33:17.170 --> 33:20.550 He is what we would call today a scientist, a natural 33:20.549 --> 33:23.299 scientist. But, this seems quite removed, 33:23.303 --> 33:27.253 doesn't it, from the Socrates who is brought up on charges of 33:27.249 --> 33:29.879 corrupting the young and the impiety. 33:29.880 --> 33:35.200 In the Apology and here is where Socrates actually tells 33:35.199 --> 33:40.089 the story, very important in the course of this speech; 33:40.089 --> 33:43.899 he provides a kind of intellectual biography of an 33:43.903 --> 33:48.423 incident that occurred long before the trial and set him on 33:48.416 --> 33:50.436 a very different path. 33:50.440 --> 33:53.540 He recalls the story, don't you remember, 33:53.539 --> 33:56.949 of a man named Charephon, a friend of his, 33:56.950 --> 34:01.690 who had gone to the Delphic Oracle, who had gone to Oracle 34:01.692 --> 34:06.602 of Delphi, and asked if there was anyone wiser than Socrates 34:06.600 --> 34:09.180 and was told there was not. 34:09.179 --> 34:13.949 Socrates tells us that when he was told this he expressed 34:13.953 --> 34:16.173 disbelief in the Oracle. 34:16.170 --> 34:20.420 He didn't believe it and in order to disprove the Oracle's 34:20.422 --> 34:24.822 statement, he says he began a lifelong quest to find someone 34:24.824 --> 34:26.544 wiser than himself. 34:26.539 --> 34:30.519 A quest, in the course of which lead him to interrogate the 34:30.523 --> 34:33.423 politicians, the poets, the craftsmen, 34:33.423 --> 34:36.643 all people reputed to be knowledgeable, 34:36.637 --> 34:40.947 and his conversations lead him to ask questions, 34:40.949 --> 34:45.249 not about natural scientific phenomena, but questions about 34:45.247 --> 34:49.377 the virtues, as he tells us, the virtues of a human being 34:49.380 --> 34:51.970 and a citizen, what we would call today 34:51.972 --> 34:54.772 perhaps moral and political questions. 34:54.769 --> 35:01.389 That incident that Socrates tells here represents what one 35:01.387 --> 35:08.347 could call the famous Socratic turn, Socrates' second sailing 35:08.352 --> 35:12.732 so to speak. It represents the moment in the 35:12.730 --> 35:17.690 life of Socrates where he turns away from the investigation of 35:17.690 --> 35:22.240 natural phenomena to the study of the human and political 35:22.244 --> 35:25.084 things, the moral and political things. 35:25.079 --> 35:30.759 The Delphic story for what it's worth marks a major turning 35:30.760 --> 35:35.070 point in Socrates' intellectual biography. 35:35.070 --> 35:38.510 The move from the younger, we could call him, 35:38.508 --> 35:41.788 Aristophanic Socrates, the Socrates who, 35:41.789 --> 35:46.069 again, investigates the things aloft and under the earth, 35:46.069 --> 35:49.129 to the later, what we could call platonic 35:49.126 --> 35:52.086 Socrates. The founder of political 35:52.093 --> 35:57.353 science, Socrates is the founder of our discipline who asks about 35:57.354 --> 36:00.894 the virtues of moral and political life. 36:00.889 --> 36:06.779 Socrates' account of this turn, this major turn in his life and 36:06.782 --> 36:11.252 career, leaves a lot of questions unanswered, 36:11.250 --> 36:14.750 that maybe even occurred to you as you were reading this 36:14.745 --> 36:16.775 dialogue, reading this speech. 36:16.780 --> 36:21.120 Why does he turn away from the investigation of natural 36:21.124 --> 36:25.554 phenomena to the study of human and political things? 36:25.550 --> 36:29.440 The Delphic Oracle is interpreted by Socrates, 36:29.443 --> 36:34.293 at least to command engaging with others in philosophical 36:34.289 --> 36:38.589 conversation. Why does he interpret it this 36:38.591 --> 36:41.221 way? Why does this seem the proper 36:41.216 --> 36:45.486 interpretation to engage in these kinds of conversations? 36:45.490 --> 36:50.250 36:50.250 --> 36:53.160 It is this Socrates who is brought up on charges of 36:53.156 --> 36:56.236 corruption and impiety, yet none of this quite answers 36:56.238 --> 36:59.608 the question of what is the nature of Socrates' crime. 36:59.610 --> 37:06.470 What did he do? What did corruption and impiety 37:06.472 --> 37:09.082 mean? To try to answer those 37:09.076 --> 37:14.356 questions we would have to look a little bit at what is meant by 37:14.364 --> 37:17.474 this new kind of Socratic citizen. 37:17.470 --> 37:21.110 37:21.110 --> 37:22.000 Who is this citizen? 37:22.000 --> 37:27.450 37:27.449 --> 37:31.049 The charges brought against Socrates by Anytus and Meletus 37:31.050 --> 37:34.970 we see are not the same exactly as those brought against him by 37:34.966 --> 37:37.466 Aristophanes, the comic poet. 37:37.469 --> 37:40.819 Anytus and Meletus talk about impiety and corruption, 37:40.824 --> 37:44.374 not investigating the things aloft and making the weaker 37:44.372 --> 37:46.052 argument the stronger. 37:46.050 --> 37:47.460 What do these terms mean? 37:47.460 --> 37:52.870 Impiety and corruption, in what sense are these civic 37:52.874 --> 37:56.314 offenses? What could impiety have meant 37:56.314 --> 37:59.484 to his audience and his contemporaries? 37:59.480 --> 38:03.340 At a minimum, we would think the charge of 38:03.342 --> 38:07.302 impiety suggests disrespect of the gods. 38:07.300 --> 38:11.630 Impiety need not be the same thing as atheism, 38:11.633 --> 38:15.103 although Meletus confuses the two, 38:15.099 --> 38:20.819 but it does suggest irreverence even blasphemy toward the things 38:20.824 --> 38:24.554 that a society cares most deeply about. 38:24.550 --> 38:28.720 Yes? To be impious is to disrespect 38:28.716 --> 38:33.746 those things a person or a society cares most deeply about. 38:33.750 --> 38:36.100 When people today, for example, 38:36.096 --> 38:40.546 refer to flag burning as a desecration, as desecrating the 38:40.554 --> 38:44.154 flag they are speaking the language of impiety, 38:44.151 --> 38:47.741 right. They are speaking the language 38:47.738 --> 38:52.858 of some kind of religious or quasi-religious desecration. 38:52.860 --> 38:57.290 Meletus, whose name in Greek actually means care, 38:57.285 --> 39:02.995 accuses Socrates of not caring properly for the things that his 39:03.001 --> 39:05.861 fellow citizens care about. 39:05.860 --> 39:08.450 So, the question is: "What does Socrates care 39:08.450 --> 39:11.270 about"? What does he care about? 39:11.269 --> 39:16.619 Consider the following: every society, 39:16.620 --> 39:22.840 which we know, operates within the medium of 39:22.838 --> 39:27.608 belief or faith of some kind. 39:27.610 --> 39:30.340 Take our founding documents, the Declaration of 39:30.335 --> 39:32.285 Independence, the Constitution, 39:32.289 --> 39:36.179 all men are created equal, that we are endowed with 39:36.179 --> 39:40.689 inalienable rights that all legitimate government grows out 39:40.691 --> 39:42.871 of consent and the like. 39:42.869 --> 39:47.349 These beliefs form something like a kind of national creed, 39:47.351 --> 39:49.361 you might say, American, 39:49.360 --> 39:53.350 national creed, what it means to be an American 39:53.353 --> 39:55.353 and not someone else. 39:55.349 --> 39:59.389 Yet, how many people could give a kind of reasoned account of 39:59.393 --> 40:03.643 what makes these beliefs true, or what grounds these beliefs? 40:03.639 --> 40:07.399 Most of us, most of the time, hold these beliefs as a matter 40:07.402 --> 40:11.562 of faith, as a matter of belief, because we have learned about 40:11.561 --> 40:14.861 them from childhood, because they were written by 40:14.856 --> 40:18.766 Thomas Jefferson or some other reputed high authority. 40:18.769 --> 40:23.359 To question those beliefs would seem to exhibit a kind of lack 40:23.361 --> 40:26.901 of civic faith, faith in our ruling opinions. 40:26.900 --> 40:31.220 In short you might say a lack of civic piety or respect. 40:31.220 --> 40:35.120 40:35.119 --> 40:38.929 Socrates clearly believes that piety or faith is the natural 40:38.934 --> 40:40.684 condition of the citizen. 40:40.679 --> 40:44.369 Every society, no matter of what kind requires 40:44.373 --> 40:49.223 a kind of faith in its ruling principles, in its fundamental 40:49.215 --> 40:52.275 beliefs. But belief seems to be 40:52.279 --> 40:55.869 threatened from at least two sources. 40:55.869 --> 41:01.959 One is simple disbelief or unbelief, a kind of rejection of 41:01.960 --> 41:07.210 ruling opinion simply because you don't like it. 41:07.210 --> 41:10.650 You know, when you see the bumper sticker on the car 41:10.648 --> 41:15.028 "Question Authority," this kind of rejection of ruling opinion. 41:15.030 --> 41:18.790 But the other source of conflict with ruling opinion is 41:18.787 --> 41:21.727 from philosophy. Philosophy is not the same 41:21.732 --> 41:25.442 thing as simple disbelief or rejection, but the two can be 41:25.443 --> 41:29.073 easily confused. Philosophy grows out of a 41:29.065 --> 41:34.595 desire to replace opinion with knowledge, opinion or belief 41:34.598 --> 41:36.928 with reason. For philosophy, 41:36.928 --> 41:39.858 it is not enough simply to hold a belief on faith, 41:39.864 --> 41:42.924 but one must be able to give a rational account, 41:42.920 --> 41:46.870 a reasoned account for one's belief, its goal again is to 41:46.872 --> 41:50.122 replace civic faith with rational knowledge. 41:50.119 --> 41:53.099 And, therefore, philosophy is necessarily at 41:53.098 --> 41:56.768 odds with belief and with this kind of civic faith. 41:56.769 --> 42:00.599 The citizen may accept certain beliefs on faith because he or 42:00.604 --> 42:04.254 she is attached to a particular kind of political order or 42:04.247 --> 42:06.617 regime. But, for the philosopher this 42:06.620 --> 42:09.830 is never enough. The philosopher seeks to judge 42:09.834 --> 42:13.264 those beliefs in the light of true standards, 42:13.260 --> 42:17.340 in the light of what is always and everywhere true as a quest 42:17.341 --> 42:20.131 for knowledge. There is a necessary and 42:20.134 --> 42:23.544 inevitable tension between philosophy and belief, 42:23.541 --> 42:28.421 or to put it another way, between philosophy and the 42:28.420 --> 42:33.200 civic pieties that hold the city together. 42:33.199 --> 42:36.769 From this point of view, I want to say, 42:36.769 --> 42:39.869 was Socrates guilty of impiety? 42:39.869 --> 42:43.209 On the face of it, the answer to that seems yes. 42:43.210 --> 42:46.510 Socrates does not care about the same thing his fellow 42:46.510 --> 42:47.880 citizens care about. 42:47.880 --> 42:51.190 His opening words to the jury seem to convey this, 42:51.189 --> 42:53.759 "I," he says, "am simply foreign to the 42:53.756 --> 42:55.576 manner of speech here." 42:55.579 --> 43:00.009 This seems to be a statement of his alienation or disaffection 43:00.006 --> 43:03.196 from the concerns of his fellow Athenians. 43:03.199 --> 43:08.289 I know nothing about what you do or what you care about. 43:08.289 --> 43:12.009 Yet it certainly doesn't seem right to say that Socrates does 43:12.005 --> 43:15.065 not care at all. He claims to care deeply, 43:15.070 --> 43:19.520 perhaps more deeply than anyone has ever cared around him, 43:19.517 --> 43:22.877 before or since. And among the things he cares 43:22.875 --> 43:25.655 deeply about, he says, is this calling to do 43:25.657 --> 43:29.147 nothing as he says "To do nothing but persuade you, 43:29.150 --> 43:33.530 both younger and older, not to care for bodies and 43:33.526 --> 43:38.256 money, but, how your soul will be in the best possible 43:38.260 --> 43:41.600 condition." That concern with the state of 43:41.603 --> 43:45.213 one's soul, he tells the jury, has lead him not only to 43:45.210 --> 43:48.670 impoverish himself, but to turn himself away from 43:48.671 --> 43:51.971 the public business, from the things that concern 43:51.969 --> 43:55.059 the city to the pursuit of private virtue. 43:55.059 --> 43:59.459 And, here are the words of his that I want to leave you with 43:59.457 --> 44:02.957 today from section 31d of the Apology. 44:02.960 --> 44:05.300 Socrates writes, "This is what opposes my 44:05.300 --> 44:06.530 political activity. 44:06.530 --> 44:10.820 And, its opposition seems to me to be all together noble for 44:10.817 --> 44:14.817 know well, men of Athens, if I had long ago attempted to 44:14.821 --> 44:18.701 be politically active I would long ago have perished and I 44:18.701 --> 44:21.561 would benefited neither you nor myself. 44:21.559 --> 44:26.669 Now do not be vexed with me when I speak the truth. 44:26.670 --> 44:29.990 For there is no human being who will preserve his life if he 44:29.994 --> 44:33.544 genuinely opposes either you or any other multitude and prevents 44:33.543 --> 44:37.153 many unjust and unlawful things from happening in the city." 44:37.150 --> 44:40.610 Rather, he says, "if someone who really fights 44:40.606 --> 44:45.596 for justice is going to preserve himself even for a short time, 44:45.599 --> 44:51.449 it is necessary for him to lead a private, rather than a public 44:51.445 --> 44:53.185 life." Think about that, 44:53.188 --> 44:56.678 if someone who really fights for justice is going to preserve 44:56.676 --> 44:59.576 himself, it is necessary for him to lead a private, 44:59.582 --> 45:00.922 not a public life. 45:00.920 --> 45:06.030 How are we to understand Socrates' claim that the pursuit 45:06.028 --> 45:11.318 of justice requires him to turn away from public to private 45:11.319 --> 45:13.999 life? What is this new kind of 45:14.003 --> 45:17.263 citizen, again, concerned with this kind of 45:17.264 --> 45:20.764 private virtue, this concern for the virtue of 45:20.757 --> 45:24.237 one's soul? That's the question I want us 45:24.242 --> 45:29.042 to consider again for next week as we finish the Apology 45:29.035 --> 45:32.355 and move our way up to the Crito. 45:32.360 --> 45:35.000 Okay? We'll do that for next week.