WEBVTT

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Prof: Good morning
everyone.

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We are on the cusp of
Valentine's Day.

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So I thought it was appropriate
for us all to tell Rome how much

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we love--Rome or Roma--how much
we love her.

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And so I've done that here.

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I've loved Rome for as long
as--for a long time,

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certainly from the age that you
are now.

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And I know that there are many
of you in this class who feel

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the same way,
and I hope that those of you

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who entered this class,
without having those strong

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feelings for Rome,
have come to love the city and

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its civilization as much as I
do.

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So this is a kind of Valentine
lecture, for Rome.

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And I think that the particular
topic that it is,

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is appropriate,
in the sense that we are going

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to be looking at a number of
quite eclectic monuments today,

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very different monuments,
one from the next,

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and they're full of surprises.

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And Rome is always full of
surprises;

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Rome a city,
of course, that you see layers

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upon layer of civilization,
that one peels back to get us

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back to antiquity,
but along the way experiences

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some amazing things.

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So I think that this particular
lecture,

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which will talk about the
varied nature of Roman

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architecture,
especially architecture

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commissioned by individual
patrons to preserve their memory

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for posterity,
again is particularly

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appropriate.

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I've called today's lecture
"Accessing Afterlife:

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Tombs of Roman Aristocrats,
Freedmen, and Slaves."

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We spoke on Tuesday about
public architecture commissioned

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by the emperor Augustus,
public architecture that we

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noted was made primarily out of
marble,

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out of Luna or Carrara marble,
that was quarried on the

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northwest coast of Italy itself,
and the objective of it being

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to try to conjure up the
relationship between the new

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Golden Age of Augustus and the
Golden Age,

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fifth century B.C.,
of Periclean Athens.

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Just as Julius Caesar had tried
to create a kind of Alexandria

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on the Tiber,
we see Augustus trying to

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recreate an Athens on the Tiber.

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And Augustus was,
of course, very much--

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in his objectives was very much
in keeping with other objectives

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that we've been studying for
some time: this Hellenization of

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Roman architecture that we have
addressed on a number of

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occasions.

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We spoke last time about the
Forum of Augustus in Rome,

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featuring the Temple of Mars
Ultor,

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that temple that Augustus vowed
he would build if he could be

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victorious over the assassins of
Julius Caesar,

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that is, Cassius and Brutus.

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He was so, at the Battle of
Philippi, and he built this

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forum and he built this temple
again as its centerpiece.

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And you'll recall again that it
was made, for the most part,

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out of Carrara marble.

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We see the columns of Carrara
here, a wall,

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the seventeen Carrara marble
steps, and so on.

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We also talked about the Ara
Pacis Augustae,

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the Altar of Augustan Peace,
put up to the diplomatic

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agreements or treaties that
Augustus made with those in

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Spain and Gaul:
a monument that was put up near

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his earlier mausoleum,
a monument that was also made

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out of Carrara marble,
and in fact solid Carrara

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marble.

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And this monument too had
precedents in the Greek period.

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It looked back to a number of
sources,

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but one of those,
as we noted on Tuesday,

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was the Altar of the Twelve
Gods, or the Altar of Pity,

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a fifth-century B.C.

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monument that was located in
the marketplace of ancient

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Greece.

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So again, both of these
buildings, looking back to Greek

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prototypes in their general
format,

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and also, of course,
in the material out of which

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they were made,
namely marble.

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When we talked about the Ara
Pacis,

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we talked about the fact that
it eventually ended up being

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part of a kind of architectural
complex,

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that while this architectural
complex may have not been

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planned from the start,
it grew up over time into

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something where all of the
buildings related to one another

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in interesting ways,
both in terms of their content

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and also in terms of their
architectural design.

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The complex included the
Mausoleum of Augustus,

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the tomb of the emperor
Augustus, which was the first

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monument built on this site,
and eventually the Ara Pacis,

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which you'll recall was
actually not located originally

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where it is now.

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It was located in an area a bit
here to the upper right

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originally,
on the Via Flaminia that

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Augustus took when he returned
to Rome from Spain and Gaul,

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but that it was moved,
or the remains of it were moved

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over to this location,
next to the Tiber,

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by Mussolini,
because as we noted last time,

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in the meantime a palace had
been built on top of the

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original location of the Ara
Pacis,

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and that area was no longer
available for use.

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But again, the Mausoleum of
Augustus, the first building of

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this complex.

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You see in this aerial view
from Google Earth that the

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mausoleum ended up becoming the
centerpiece of the Piazza

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Augusto Imperatore,
that piazza that Mussolini's

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architects designed to
commemorate Augustus and also to

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commemorate Mussolini,
because that inscription I

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showed you last time is inserted
into the building over here.

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If we look at this aerial view
of the Mausoleum of Augustus,

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which you'll see from your
Monument List was begun in 28

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B.C.--
and in fact that should ring

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some bells for you and we should
say something about its genesis

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in 28 B.C.

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Because you'll recall that
important date of 31;

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31 the Battle of Actium when
Augustus was victorious over

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Antony and Cleopatra and became
sole emperor,

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or began his march to becoming
sole emperor of the Roman world.

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It's interesting to see him
building this massive mausoleum

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only three years after the
Battle of Actium;

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that's really quite striking.

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Why did he do that?

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Well the reason that he seems
to have done that is despite the

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fact that he lived until
76-years-old,

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which was very old in ancient
Roman times,

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as I mentioned last
time--despite the fact that he

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lived to that ripe old age,
he was not in terribly good

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health,
even as a young man,

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and he was very concerned about
his own longevity.

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How long was he going to live?

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He knew he had accomplished a
lot already by this victory over

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Antony and Cleopatra,
and by some of his other

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military victories,
but he wasn't actually sure how

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long he was going to last,
and so he begins to build this

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gigantic tomb eventually to hold
his own remains.

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And he completes that tomb in
five years.

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It's built between 28 B.C.

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and 23 B.C.

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And you'll recall the date of
the Ara Pacis is considerably

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later;
13 to 9 B.C.

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So the Ara Pacis was only added
to this complex later,

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and at that point the whole
thing was orchestrated with the

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addition of the obelisk,
and we talked about how the

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obelisk cast a shadow on the Ara
Pacis on Augustus' birthday,

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and so on and so forth.

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With regard to the tomb itself,
we're going to see something

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quite striking today,
and that is that the tomb is

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architecturally very different
from the Ara Pacis Augustae,

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and indeed from the Forum of
Augustus.

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And it's a good example of the
eccentricity,

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as we'll characterize today,
of Roman tomb architecture in

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general.

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Keep in mind that Roman tomb
architecture is the most

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personal of any form of Roman
architecture,

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which makes it particularly
interesting to study,

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because the only practical
requirement for a tomb was that

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it be able to hold the remains
of the deceased.

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That's all it needed to do,
whereas other buildings had to

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do all kinds of other things:
have running water through

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them, and so on and so forth.

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But that was not the case here.

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So that the patron and the
architect could come together to

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create buildings that were
unique to that individual and

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again were eccentric to a
certain degree,

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and that is indeed what we will
see,

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and that is the case also in
the Mausoleum of Augustus.

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As we look down on the
Mausoleum of Augustus,

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in this aerial view,
we see the general plan of it.

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We see that there was a central
burial chamber;

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that there was a hollow drum,
and around that hollow drum--

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and all of this is made of
concrete construction--

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around that hollow drum a
series of concentric rings,

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a series of concentric rings,
as you can see them here,

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again made out of concrete.

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And then the outer wall--which
you can also see in this

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view--the outer wall was faced
with travertine,

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which is also interesting;
not Luna marble,

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travertine blocks.

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And let me show you another
somewhat closer view,

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also from Google Earth,
to show you the structure.

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So again the central burial
chamber;

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the hollow drum;
the concentric rings around

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that;
the travertine wall around that.

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But, of course,
you're looking essentially at

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the core.

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This is not what the original
entire monument looked like.

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And what it was,
was in fact there was an

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earthen tumulus,
or an earthen mound,

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that was placed on top of these
concentric rings,

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and then at the very apex of
that earthen mound was a

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gleaming bronze statue of the
emperor Augustus himself.

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I think I can make this clearer
by showing you a plan of the

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Mausoleum of Augustus.

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And we see all the features
I've already described:

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the central burial chamber,
the hollow drum,

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again all made out of concrete
construction,

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and the concentric rings around
that.

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And then the cross-section at
the top is particularly helpful

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I think because you can see the
way in which the concrete has

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been built up by means obviously
of annular vaults,

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the annular vaults that
ultimately support the gleaming

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bronze statue of Augustus,
at the apex.

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And you can also see in this
cross-section the earthen mound,

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the way in which the earthen
mound is piled up on top of that

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substructure,
that concrete substructure,

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to create the dome-like shape
of the mausoleum on its own.

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Now scholars who believe--and
we all believe in fact--that

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again Augustus was a
philhellene, that he had a

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particular penchant for things
Greek.

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So you look at something like
this and you ask yourselves,

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"Well, what's Greek about
this?

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Why didn't he,
when he came to make the

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decision about his last resting
place, why did he not want to be

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laid to rest in the manner of
the Greeks?

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Why doesn't this--why wasn't
this tomb made in the form,

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for example,
of a Greek temple,

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or something like that?

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Why did he choose this
particular form?"

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So scholars have debated for
quite some time whether there

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are any tombs like this in
Greece,

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or in Asia Minor--what kind of
tomb was Alexander the Great

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buried in,
for example?

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Well we don't know exactly for
sure, but that's one

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possibility, that it might have
something to do with Alexander's

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tomb.

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Others--because Aeneas came
from burning Troy--

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others have suggested
perhaps--and that's in Asia

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Minor--
perhaps the way the Trojans

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were buried might have something
to do with this selection.

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But I think the model is much
closer at hand.

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I think the model--myself,
I believe that the model comes

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from Italy,
and that it's a very

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interesting choice on the part
of Augustus,

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because I think what it tells
us is that Augustus may have

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wanted to build public buildings
in Rome that conjured up ancient

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Athens,
but when it came to deciding

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about how he wanted to be
buried,

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he wanted to be buried in the
manner of his Italian ancestors.

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Let me show you what I think is
a really important comparison.

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We're looking on the left-hand
side of the screen once again at

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the Mausoleum of Augustus,
as it looks today.

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Here you see the central
entranceway.

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You see what remains of the
concentric, concrete rings.

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You see some of the travertine
facing for the outer ring of the

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structure.

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And you see,
of course, that the uppermost

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part, namely the earthen mound,
is no longer there.

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But if I compare the Mausoleum
of Augustus,

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to what you see here on the
right-hand side of the screen,

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which is an Etruscan tomb,
an Etruscan tomb from the

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so-called--
and I put this on the Monument

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List for you--
the Banditaccia Cemetery,

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which is at a site called
Cerveteri,

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Cerveteri, a very important
Etruscan site.

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And this tomb we believe dates
to the sixth century B.C.

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Cerveteri is an extraordinary
place to visit now because there

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is one tomb after another of
this type.

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You go into the site and you
feel like you're on another

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planet or some such,
as you wander among these

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extremely well-preserved tombs
at Cerveteri.

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And Cerveteri,
by the way, is right off the

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highway, between Rome and
Florence.

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So it's a very easy site to get
to and very well worthwhile;

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there's nothing quite like it
anywhere in Italy,

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anywhere indeed in the world.

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And you see these series--and
I've just chosen one here to

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show you--
you see these series of tombs,

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and I think if you look at it
you'll see the similarity of

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this to the Mausoleum of
Augustus.

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These round Etruscan tombs have
central burial chambers.

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They have stone facing around
the outermost part of the

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structure.

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And you can see that piled on
top of that is an earthen mound,

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and if you expand the size --
the Cerveteri tomb is much

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smaller.

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Actually the individual
Cerveteri tombs are smaller than

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the Mausoleum of Augustus.

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The Mausoleum of Augustus is
290 feet in diameter;

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it's a very large building.

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But if you expand the size of
one of these,

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what we call tumulus,
t-u-m-u-l-u-s,

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tumulus tombs,
at Cerveteri,

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if you expand the size,
if you plant this with trees--

15:02.950 --> 15:05.950
because we know that the
Mausoleum of Augustus was

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planted with trees on the
earthen mound;

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there's been quite a bit of
controversy about what kind of

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trees.

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For a long time people said
cypress trees.

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Now people seem to favor
juniper trees.

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But whatever,
trees of some sort,

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decorating that earthen mound.

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So if you enlarge this,
if you put some junipers on top

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of it,
and if you stick a gleaming

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bronze statue of Augustus at the
apex,

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you will have essentially the
Mausoleum of Augustus.

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So I'd like to suggest to you
today that the Mausoleum of

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Augustus indicates to us that
when it came to his tomb,

15:39.730 --> 15:43.380
Augustus wanted to be buried
like his Italian ancestors,

15:43.379 --> 15:48.269
like the Etruscans,
and that is why he chose this

15:48.267 --> 15:51.727
particular type of tomb in Rome.

15:51.730 --> 15:54.530
The Mausoleum of Augustus,
like so many other monuments

15:54.533 --> 15:56.823
that we've been looking at this
semester,

15:56.820 --> 16:00.660
survives in large part because
it was re-used over the

16:00.658 --> 16:03.408
centuries in a wide variety of
ways.

16:03.408 --> 16:07.468
You can see in this engraving
that it was used at one point as

16:07.471 --> 16:10.501
a garden,
a very nicely manicured garden,

16:10.504 --> 16:13.104
as you can see inside the
remains,

16:13.100 --> 16:16.720
inside those concentric
circles, a very nice garden.

16:16.720 --> 16:21.440
It was also used as a fortress
at one point by the well-known

16:21.436 --> 16:23.476
Colonna family of Italy.

16:23.480 --> 16:25.210
It was used,
believe it or not,

16:25.205 --> 16:28.245
as a bull ring--
a little touch of Spain in the

16:28.254 --> 16:31.904
midst of Rome,
as a bull ring--and it was used

16:31.903 --> 16:34.483
most recently as a music hall.

16:34.480 --> 16:39.670
It was a music hall before it
was turned back into the

16:39.668 --> 16:42.018
Mausoleum of Augustus.

16:42.019 --> 16:45.539
So again, this very--a very
similar saga to this building

16:45.535 --> 16:49.485
and to its post-antique history,
as to so many others that we've

16:49.491 --> 16:50.561
talked about.

16:50.558 --> 16:54.948
Another important point to make
about the Mausoleum of Augustus

16:54.950 --> 16:58.250
is that,
although Augustus intended it

16:58.254 --> 17:02.504
as his own last resting place,
he didn't intend for him to be

17:02.499 --> 17:04.639
the only person who was laid to
rest there.

17:04.640 --> 17:06.890
He wanted this to serve as a
family tomb,

17:06.890 --> 17:10.100
for him, his wife,
his--well it turned out his

17:10.097 --> 17:13.507
daughter didn't end up there,
but that may have been the

17:13.509 --> 17:15.659
intention originally,
that she would.

17:15.660 --> 17:19.240
She was discredited because of
all the adulterous affairs she

17:19.238 --> 17:22.338
had and Augustus eventually
banished her in 2 B.C.

17:22.338 --> 17:25.308
from Rome, razed her house to
the ground, and did not allow

17:25.310 --> 17:27.770
her to be buried in the
Mausoleum of Augustus.

17:27.769 --> 17:33.769
But for his wife,
for his nephew and son-in-law,

17:33.769 --> 17:37.169
Marcellus, and others,
he wanted to create this family

17:37.169 --> 17:39.939
tomb where he,
his family, and presumably,

17:39.939 --> 17:42.799
since his objective was to
create a dynasty,

17:42.798 --> 17:46.368
presumably where his successors
of the dynasty that he founded

17:46.371 --> 17:48.071
would also be laid to rest.

17:48.068 --> 17:51.678
And there are inscription
plaques that have come to light,

17:51.680 --> 17:54.280
from the Mausoleum of Augustus,
and I can show you a couple of

17:54.284 --> 17:57.324
them here,
that do indicate that was

17:57.316 --> 17:59.096
exactly the case.

17:59.098 --> 18:02.508
We see this plaque over here,
which actually has the name

18:02.512 --> 18:04.222
Marcellus inscribed there.

18:04.220 --> 18:07.800
This is the Marcellus of the
Theater of Marcellus,

18:07.800 --> 18:12.040
the nephew and son-in-law of
Augustus, who was laid to rest

18:12.040 --> 18:13.650
in this Mausoleum.

18:13.650 --> 18:18.260
His sister, "soror,"
Octavia, also laid to rest;

18:18.259 --> 18:21.339
that is, Augustus' sister,
Octavia, also laid to rest

18:21.335 --> 18:21.745
here.

18:21.750 --> 18:25.780
And it continued to be used as
a burial place again after

18:25.777 --> 18:29.727
Augustus' death and through the
so-called Julio-Claudian

18:29.732 --> 18:32.482
emperors,
who we'll look at next week:

18:32.484 --> 18:34.734
Tiberius and Caligula and
Claudius.

18:34.730 --> 18:37.850
And we see, in fact,
an inscription plaque over here

18:37.846 --> 18:41.266
that honors Agrippina the Elder:
Agrippina the Elder,

18:41.269 --> 18:44.249
the mother of Caligula,
the third emperor of Rome,

18:44.250 --> 18:47.800
and it was Caligula who laid
his mother to rest in this tomb.

18:47.798 --> 18:53.188
So very much a family tomb
created by the emperor Augustus.

18:53.190 --> 18:56.250
And I should also mention,
with regard to burial practice

18:56.246 --> 18:59.436
at this time,
that everybody was--imperial

18:59.440 --> 19:02.060
individuals,
and those lower on the social

19:02.061 --> 19:04.971
pyramid as well--
were all cremated at this

19:04.970 --> 19:06.330
particular time.

19:06.328 --> 19:10.748
So you have to imagine that
there were urns for each of

19:10.750 --> 19:14.190
these inside the tomb somewhere
as well.

19:14.190 --> 19:18.520
Now it may not surprise you to
hear that once the emperor chose

19:18.515 --> 19:22.395
the form of his tomb,
that he set in motion a fashion

19:22.396 --> 19:26.026
that just about every aristocrat
wanted to follow.

19:26.028 --> 19:28.588
So all of a sudden,
after the construction of the

19:28.586 --> 19:31.766
Mausoleum of Augustus,
again between 28 and 23,

19:31.769 --> 19:35.849
there is this efflorescence of
round tombs in Rome and

19:35.854 --> 19:37.554
elsewhere in Italy.

19:37.548 --> 19:40.408
And I want to show you just one
example of that.

19:40.410 --> 19:44.410
This is the so-called Tomb of
Caecilia Metella.

19:44.410 --> 19:46.930
It dates to 20 B.C.

19:46.930 --> 19:50.910
So it began to be put up not
too long after Augustus'

19:50.913 --> 19:52.603
mausoleum was built.

19:52.598 --> 19:56.498
It is located on the famous Via
Appia in Rome,

19:56.503 --> 19:57.983
the Appian Way.

19:57.980 --> 20:00.830
The Appian Way,
which you see--this is a Google

20:00.828 --> 20:04.728
Earth image once again where you
can see a stretch of the Appian

20:04.731 --> 20:06.921
Way,
or the Via Appia,

20:06.924 --> 20:11.044
that is modern asphalt,
although there are remains--and

20:11.038 --> 20:13.298
I'll show you later an example
of this--

20:13.298 --> 20:17.898
there are remains of the
polygonal masonry pavement that

20:17.901 --> 20:22.241
would have been there initially,
looking very much like the

20:22.238 --> 20:25.328
pavement that we saw in Pompeii,
for example.

20:25.328 --> 20:28.818
And you can see the Tomb of
Caecilia Metella right over

20:28.817 --> 20:29.267
here.

20:29.269 --> 20:32.709
Like the Mausoleum of Augustus,
it was re-used in ancient

20:32.705 --> 20:36.445
times, and there was a fortress
and a palace that was added to

20:36.450 --> 20:36.880
it.

20:36.880 --> 20:41.170
And you can see also there,
in a reddish earth color,

20:41.170 --> 20:47.030
the remains of that fortress
and palace that abutted the

20:47.025 --> 20:51.705
mausoleum or the Tomb of
Caecilia Metella.

20:51.710 --> 20:55.180
And while this is on the
screen, you can also see that

20:55.183 --> 20:58.663
while the tomb was essentially a
cylindrical drum,

20:58.660 --> 21:02.790
resembling the cylindrical drum
of the Mausoleum of Augustus,

21:02.788 --> 21:06.718
it was placed--it was given
some height by being placed on a

21:06.722 --> 21:09.252
podium--
the kind of podium that we saw

21:09.248 --> 21:11.968
at the sanctuaries,
or the podium that we saw at

21:11.973 --> 21:14.453
the Villa of the Mysteries--
to raise it up.

21:14.450 --> 21:16.630
It's not as big as those,
but it's sizable,

21:16.630 --> 21:19.880
and it raises this round tomb
up a little bit,

21:19.880 --> 21:23.460
so that it can be more readily
seen as people make their way

21:23.462 --> 21:24.802
along the Via Appia.

21:24.798 --> 21:28.458
The Mausoleum of Augustus does
not have a similar podium.

21:28.460 --> 21:31.240
So that's a unique,
a different feature that is

21:31.236 --> 21:33.466
added to this particular
structure.

21:33.470 --> 21:36.150
You can also see there's an
inscription on the front,

21:36.153 --> 21:39.043
and we'll talk about that in a
moment, and then there are

21:39.042 --> 21:40.542
crenellations at the top.

21:40.538 --> 21:43.528
There's some dispute about when
those crenellations were added,

21:43.525 --> 21:46.025
whether they belonged to the
original tomb or not.

21:46.029 --> 21:48.659
I think it's highly unlikely
that they belonged to the

21:48.663 --> 21:51.293
original tomb,
and they may have been added at

21:51.285 --> 21:53.915
the time that this was made into
a fortress,

21:53.920 --> 21:57.090
as I've already mentioned.

21:57.088 --> 21:59.648
This is a view of the Tomb of
Caecilia Metella,

21:59.650 --> 22:04.400
as it looks today,
this tomb of this woman of 20

22:04.401 --> 22:06.671
B.C.,
and you can see that it's

22:06.673 --> 22:10.103
actually quite well preserved,
and we can get a very good

22:10.096 --> 22:12.116
sense of its original
appearance.

22:12.118 --> 22:16.408
You can see the concrete podium
down here, without its original

22:16.406 --> 22:18.786
facing;
it was surely faced.

22:18.788 --> 22:21.268
You can see the great
cylindrical drum,

22:21.270 --> 22:24.600
of the Tomb of Caecilia
Metella, and you can see the

22:24.601 --> 22:25.321
facing.

22:25.318 --> 22:27.918
And, once again,
the facing for this tomb,

22:27.923 --> 22:31.673
just as in the Mausoleum of
Augustus, is not Luna or Carrara

22:31.671 --> 22:32.371
marble.

22:32.368 --> 22:35.548
It is travertine,
but very, very nicely cut

22:35.547 --> 22:38.647
travertine blocks,
as you can see here.

22:38.650 --> 22:39.990
Very well done.

22:39.990 --> 22:43.470
She was undoubtedly a
well-to-do patron who was able

22:43.465 --> 22:46.885
to hire the best architects,
the best artisans,

22:46.893 --> 22:50.693
and they have done an
outstanding job of cutting that

22:50.688 --> 22:51.708
travertine.

22:51.710 --> 22:56.260
You can see also that there is
a frieze that encircles the

22:56.257 --> 23:01.577
monument at the uppermost part,
right here, and that frieze

23:01.575 --> 23:05.335
depicts garlands and skulls of
bulls,

23:05.339 --> 23:08.339
bucrania;
the same sort of thing that we

23:08.339 --> 23:10.969
saw in the inner precinct wall
of the Ara Pacis.

23:10.970 --> 23:14.580
Although this pre-dates the Ara
Pacis, so we can't say it was

23:14.582 --> 23:16.572
the influence of the Ara Pacis.

23:16.568 --> 23:20.528
This is again 20,
whereas the Ara Pacis wasn't

23:20.531 --> 23:22.031
begun until 13.

23:22.028 --> 23:23.728
And it shows us that this motif
was very much in the air,

23:23.730 --> 23:27.500
during the Augustan period,
this motif of garlands hanging

23:27.500 --> 23:30.930
from bucrania,
which of course makes reference

23:30.929 --> 23:33.969
to sacrifice,
and it could be a sacrifice in

23:33.971 --> 23:38.391
honor of a funerary event,
as well as anything else,

23:38.387 --> 23:42.047
and we again see that very well
here.

23:42.048 --> 23:48.468
One very interesting fact is
that the frieze is not made out

23:48.474 --> 23:52.834
of travertine but out of
pentelic marble,

23:52.830 --> 23:55.010
p-e-n-t-e-l-i-c.

23:55.009 --> 23:59.539
Pentelic marble is marble from
Mount Pentelikon in Greece.

23:59.538 --> 24:04.008
So it tells us that marble was
imported from Greece,

24:04.009 --> 24:07.359
or marble that was imported
from Greece was purchased and

24:07.358 --> 24:10.468
used for the frieze of this
particular structure,

24:10.470 --> 24:13.470
and we'll see that it was used
also for the inscription plaque.

24:13.470 --> 24:15.390
So it tells us something.

24:15.390 --> 24:19.350
It tells us that there
was--that some patrons made the

24:19.346 --> 24:23.896
decision to spend a little more
for the material for what they

24:23.902 --> 24:28.012
considered the most important
part of the monument.

24:28.009 --> 24:31.779
So in this case the most
important part of the monument

24:31.781 --> 24:35.001
was the frieze,
and also the inscription plaque

24:34.998 --> 24:38.028
that preserved this woman's name
for posterity.

24:38.029 --> 24:41.389
So they paid a little bit more
in order to get that more

24:41.394 --> 24:44.514
expensive material for those
critical details of the

24:44.513 --> 24:45.313
monument.

24:45.309 --> 24:46.389
Here's the inscription.

24:46.390 --> 24:48.620
We're very fortunate that it's
still preserved today.

24:48.618 --> 24:51.698
We see it still inserted into
the monument.

24:51.700 --> 24:57.170
Again, it's done in pentelic
marble, and I think you can see,

24:57.171 --> 25:01.641
even in this view,
the difference between pentelic

25:01.638 --> 25:04.008
marble and travertine.

25:04.009 --> 25:08.019
Travertine has more texture to
it than the plainer marble,

25:08.015 --> 25:09.205
as you can see.

25:09.210 --> 25:14.400
And her name is given here,
Caecilia Metella:

25:14.398 --> 25:17.818
Caecilia Metella down here.

25:17.818 --> 25:23.108
And it tells us that she was
the daughter F(filia),

25:23.112 --> 25:27.242
f-i-l-i-a, the daughter of
Quintus Q.

25:27.240 --> 25:31.710
Creticus--Creticus,
C-r-e-t-i-c-u-s--who may have

25:31.711 --> 25:34.741
come from Crete;
it's possible.

25:34.740 --> 25:38.970
And it also makes reference to
the fact that she was married to

25:38.969 --> 25:41.219
someone by the name of Crassus.

25:41.220 --> 25:44.960
This may be Crassus the Elder;
we're not absolutely sure.

25:44.960 --> 25:48.180
But what it does indicate to us
is this is an aristocratic

25:48.178 --> 25:48.628
woman.

25:48.630 --> 25:52.580
This is an aristocratic woman
whose family has a great deal of

25:52.576 --> 25:56.516
money, who are honoring her with
this tomb, in the mode of the

25:56.521 --> 25:59.651
day;
which of course was the tomb

25:59.654 --> 26:03.584
type that was chosen by Augustus
himself.

26:03.578 --> 26:06.338
You may have noticed up here,
in this same detail,

26:06.338 --> 26:08.738
not only the frieze that we've
already described,

26:08.740 --> 26:10.590
with the garlands and
bucrania,

26:10.588 --> 26:14.678
but that there is a relief here
that represents a Roman trophy.

26:14.680 --> 26:15.810
What is a Roman trophy?

26:15.808 --> 26:20.168
What the Romans did at the end
of battle,

26:20.170 --> 26:23.200
if they were victorious,
is they went over to the

26:23.199 --> 26:26.669
nearest tree trunk on the
battlefield and they took arms

26:26.671 --> 26:30.461
and armor from their defeated
enemy and they tacked that arms

26:30.458 --> 26:34.898
and armor up on that tree trunk,
to create a military trophy

26:34.900 --> 26:38.920
commemorating their victory,
right on the battlefield.

26:38.920 --> 26:42.600
And that's exactly what you see
here, a tree trunk with a

26:42.603 --> 26:45.633
breastplate and a helmet and
shields and so on,

26:45.628 --> 26:47.798
all tacked up to that trophy.

26:47.798 --> 26:50.668
So we have to ask ourselves,
what is that trophy doing on

26:50.673 --> 26:52.063
this particular monument?

26:52.058 --> 26:55.878
It's highly unlikely that it
refers to--there are some

26:55.884 --> 26:59.634
instances;
we do hear about woman trying

26:59.626 --> 27:04.586
to raise money for troops and so
on and so forth.

27:04.588 --> 27:08.148
But we don't--and even thinking
that they might go into battle

27:08.145 --> 27:11.525
-- but for the most part Roman
women did not participate in

27:11.528 --> 27:12.168
battle.

27:12.170 --> 27:16.870
So it is highly unlikely that
this refers to a military

27:16.865 --> 27:19.035
encounter that she had.

27:19.038 --> 27:22.628
More likely it either refers to
a military encounter of her

27:22.628 --> 27:25.658
father or her husband,
or it may be a more generic

27:25.662 --> 27:27.212
reference to victory.

27:27.210 --> 27:30.740
We've talked about the fact
that in the minds of the Romans,

27:30.740 --> 27:33.600
the victory in battle,
victory in the hunt,

27:33.598 --> 27:37.428
often were conflated with
victory over death.

27:37.430 --> 27:39.900
So it could be a more generic
reference,

27:39.900 --> 27:43.820
but I would guess it may have
something to do more

27:43.818 --> 27:48.778
specifically with the conquest
of her husband or her father.

27:48.779 --> 27:55.149
The structure today is just
right there, out on the Via

27:55.145 --> 27:57.455
Appia;
easy to see.

27:57.460 --> 28:00.870
There is a small museum that
isn't all that often open,

28:00.874 --> 28:03.974
but sometimes it is,
that is in the remains of the

28:03.972 --> 28:06.442
fortress, and the palace next
door.

28:06.440 --> 28:09.590
You can see that the outside of
the monument,

28:09.588 --> 28:12.068
they've inserted a lot of finds
just from--

28:12.068 --> 28:15.268
it doesn't mean they came from
the Tomb of Caecilia Metella --

28:15.269 --> 28:17.409
but from this area on the Via
Appia.

28:17.410 --> 28:18.950
There were tons of Roman tombs
out here,

28:18.950 --> 28:21.760
and all of this paraphernalia
that you see,

28:21.759 --> 28:25.889
statuary and fragments of
friezes and cornices and so on,

28:25.890 --> 28:28.700
all come in part possibly from
this monument,

28:28.700 --> 28:32.040
but more likely from the other
tombs in the area.

28:32.038 --> 28:34.558
Those have been inserted into
the wall in a kind of

28:34.561 --> 28:35.471
interesting way.

28:35.470 --> 28:37.630
And then here's the museum
itself.

28:37.630 --> 28:40.280
The museum doesn't have--the
stuff that's in there is pretty

28:40.281 --> 28:42.441
much the same sort of thing that
you see here.

28:42.440 --> 28:46.850
But going into the museum is
interesting because you can see

28:46.849 --> 28:51.559
into the central chamber of the
Tomb of Caecilia Metella and see

28:51.558 --> 28:54.548
the concrete construction and so
on.

28:54.548 --> 29:00.118
I mentioned already that Roman
tombs could be very eccentric

29:00.115 --> 29:03.155
indeed,
and I want to show you one of

29:03.156 --> 29:06.486
the two most eccentric tombs,
in my opinion,

29:06.491 --> 29:11.331
from ancient Rome that one can
see in the city of Rome today.

29:11.328 --> 29:16.148
And the first of these is the
so-called Tomb of Cestius,

29:16.150 --> 29:19.320
because we believe--in fact,
we're absolutely sure--

29:19.318 --> 29:22.078
that it honors a man by the
name of Gaius,

29:22.078 --> 29:25.008
G-a-i-u-s Cestius,
C-e-s-t-i-u-s;

29:25.009 --> 29:25.979
Gaius Cestius.

29:25.980 --> 29:27.720
It was put up in 15 B.C.

29:27.720 --> 29:30.570
That is in the age of the
emperor Augustus.

29:30.568 --> 29:35.238
In this Google Earth aerial
view, we see what that structure

29:35.243 --> 29:36.753
looks like today.

29:36.750 --> 29:42.290
It is a Roman tomb in the form
of an Egyptian pyramid.

29:42.288 --> 29:46.008
It's the only Roman tomb in the
form of an Egyptian pyramid that

29:46.008 --> 29:49.198
we can see in Rome today,
but we know there were others

29:49.195 --> 29:50.195
in antiquity.

29:50.200 --> 29:54.800
We have reports that tell us
that certain others that existed

29:54.800 --> 29:58.560
at a certain time were torn
down, at one point.

29:58.558 --> 30:00.498
There was one,
for example,

30:00.501 --> 30:04.241
not far from the Vatican,
that was torn down at one

30:04.239 --> 30:08.049
point, because it got in the way
of the street.

30:08.048 --> 30:10.298
So this is not unique in the
sense of the only one,

30:10.298 --> 30:12.638
although it is the only one
still surviving today.

30:12.640 --> 30:14.380
We have no idea how many of
these there were.

30:14.380 --> 30:15.670
There were certainly some.

30:15.670 --> 30:18.840
Whether there were a lot,
we can't be absolutely certain.

30:18.838 --> 30:20.258
But here it is,
a Roman tomb,

30:20.259 --> 30:21.629
in the form of a pyramid.

30:21.630 --> 30:25.210
Now when it was first put up,
it was put up outside the

30:25.208 --> 30:29.188
Servian Walls of the city,
because all--as we've talked

30:29.192 --> 30:33.682
about the fact that by Roman law
the necropolis or city of the

30:33.683 --> 30:38.033
dead needed to be located
outside the walls of the city.

30:38.029 --> 30:40.619
But as the city grew,
and as there was a need for a

30:40.617 --> 30:42.897
new wall--
and this happened in the third

30:42.900 --> 30:45.120
century A.D.,
and we'll talk about it way at

30:45.118 --> 30:48.148
the end of this semester--
the Romans ended up building a

30:48.147 --> 30:51.307
new wall,
the famous Aurelian Walls.

30:51.308 --> 30:55.228
And the circuit happened to be
planned for this particular--to

30:55.229 --> 30:59.019
pass this particular point where
the Tomb of Cestius was.

30:59.019 --> 31:03.159
And fortunately they recognized
the aesthetic and historical

31:03.163 --> 31:06.923
value of this tomb,
and decided not to tear it

31:06.915 --> 31:12.005
down, but rather to incorporate
it into the Aurelian Walls.

31:12.009 --> 31:13.479
So what you see in this aerial
view are two of the walls--

31:13.480 --> 31:16.070
two parts of the Aurelian Walls
abutting,

31:16.068 --> 31:20.718
and in fact incorporating,
the Pyramid of Cestius,

31:20.720 --> 31:23.350
but in antiquity--when it was
first built,

31:23.349 --> 31:24.999
excuse me, it stood alone.

31:25.000 --> 31:29.670
And what you see over here is a
gateway that also belongs to the

31:29.665 --> 31:31.365
later Aurelian Walls.

31:31.368 --> 31:36.918
So again, fortunately this
particular tomb was preserved.

31:36.920 --> 31:41.190
These two engravings are
helpful in showing us that the

31:41.192 --> 31:45.152
inner core of the Tomb of
Cestius was concrete,

31:45.150 --> 31:49.420
and the outer pyramidal shape
was faced once again with

31:49.421 --> 31:50.451
travertine.

31:50.450 --> 31:53.590
So travertine clearly the
material of choice by

31:53.594 --> 31:56.074
aristocrats--
because we're going to see that

31:56.067 --> 31:59.447
Cestius was also an aristocrat--
for their tombs in the age of

31:59.450 --> 32:03.940
Augustus: concrete core,
travertine facing.

32:03.940 --> 32:07.160
And then if you look at this
cutaway view over here,

32:07.155 --> 32:10.425
you will see that the burial
chamber inside was very,

32:10.434 --> 32:15.014
very, very small;
very, very, very small.

32:15.009 --> 32:18.199
So small enough that there was
not a lot of space for these

32:18.200 --> 32:20.850
burials;
but we'll see that we still

32:20.849 --> 32:24.039
believe that this too was a
family tomb.

32:24.038 --> 32:29.428
The burial chamber has had,
and still has,

32:29.434 --> 32:33.124
remnants of painted walls.

32:33.118 --> 32:36.468
And I show you an engraving
here of those walls that was

32:36.473 --> 32:39.953
made when they were in somewhat
better shape than they are

32:39.950 --> 32:40.560
today.

32:40.558 --> 32:43.888
And I wondered if any of
you--you're such experts now on

32:43.886 --> 32:46.606
First to Fourth Style Roman wall
painting--

32:46.608 --> 32:48.968
if any of you could tell
me--I'm sure all of you could

32:48.970 --> 32:52.680
tell me--
what style painting is being

32:52.681 --> 32:58.551
used in the burial chamber of
the Tomb of Cestius?

32:58.549 --> 32:59.769
Student:  Third Style.

32:59.769 --> 33:00.819
Prof: Third style.

33:00.817 --> 33:01.527
Why Third Style?

33:01.528 --> 33:04.858
Student:  There's
floating mythological features

33:04.858 --> 33:06.338
and very thin columns.

33:06.338 --> 33:09.108
Prof: Very thin
candelabra here,

33:09.111 --> 33:11.081
and mythological figures.

33:11.078 --> 33:14.818
How are those used that
make--that show that this is a

33:14.823 --> 33:16.733
typical Third Style wall?

33:16.730 --> 33:19.110
Student:  They have a
blackout laying around them and

33:19.106 --> 33:20.716
they're just floating around in
space.

33:20.720 --> 33:21.770
Prof: That's the word,
floating.

33:21.769 --> 33:24.049
They are floating in this
random space,

33:24.051 --> 33:26.941
right in the center of the
panels, as we know was

33:26.935 --> 33:30.175
characteristic of Third Style
Roman wall painting.

33:30.180 --> 33:34.040
So 15 B.C., Third Style Roman
wall painting.

33:34.038 --> 33:37.878
And if you think back to some
of the palaces or villas that we

33:37.880 --> 33:41.660
looked at and their dates--think
of Boscotrecase for example,

33:41.656 --> 33:42.346
11 B.C.

33:42.348 --> 33:46.888
You see this is roughly
contemporary to what's happening

33:46.891 --> 33:50.031
in Campania at this particular
time.

33:50.029 --> 33:54.009
And here are two details of the
remains of those paintings,

33:54.009 --> 33:56.519
and you can see one of these
floating mythological figures

33:56.520 --> 33:58.460
that looks like a victory
figure: female,

33:58.460 --> 34:00.400
winged, carrying a wreath over
here,

34:00.400 --> 34:02.270
flying in the center of the
panel.

34:02.269 --> 34:04.039
This also shows you,
in this case,

34:04.040 --> 34:06.620
the panels were white,
very similar to the walls,

34:06.617 --> 34:08.927
for example,
of the Third Style in the Domus

34:08.925 --> 34:09.995
Aurea in Rome.

34:10.000 --> 34:12.720
And then here,
this candelabrum,

34:12.719 --> 34:15.349
very attenuated,
very delicate,

34:15.353 --> 34:18.603
that is used in place of
columns;

34:18.599 --> 34:23.129
both of these motifs decorating
the flat wall that was so

34:23.130 --> 34:27.340
characteristic of Third Style
Roman wall painting.

34:27.340 --> 34:30.300
Here's another view of the
pyramid as it looks today.

34:30.300 --> 34:32.890
You can see it is exceedingly
well preserved,

34:32.891 --> 34:35.661
one of the best preserved of
all Roman tombs.

34:35.659 --> 34:40.269
You can see again the way in
which the later wall was built

34:40.273 --> 34:42.953
into it,
and you can also see the

34:42.945 --> 34:46.975
travertine blocks and how
carefully carved they were by

34:46.983 --> 34:49.543
the designers,
by the artisans.

34:49.539 --> 34:55.339
And here, this is very helpful,
because it shows you that the--

34:55.340 --> 34:57.480
at least one,
but I can tell you that two

34:57.476 --> 35:00.296
sides of the tomb,
the eastern and western sides

35:00.298 --> 35:03.018
of the tomb,
had in the center of the

35:03.021 --> 35:05.321
pyramid the name of Cestius.

35:05.320 --> 35:06.670
That's how we know it was his
tomb.

35:06.670 --> 35:08.800
You see it here, Gaius Cestius.

35:08.800 --> 35:11.200
And it also includes all of his
titles.

35:11.199 --> 35:15.479
So he was very happy to
advertise his titles on this

35:15.481 --> 35:17.941
monument,
the purpose of which,

35:17.940 --> 35:22.080
of course, was for those who
mourned him to feel proud of him

35:22.081 --> 35:23.741
and his achievements.

35:23.739 --> 35:26.899
But even more important than
that, from his point of view I

35:26.900 --> 35:29.150
am sure,
and from the point of view of

35:29.146 --> 35:32.496
the Romans in general,
was that his name and his deeds

35:32.503 --> 35:35.403
be preserved for posterity so
that someday--

35:35.400 --> 35:39.200
in 2009, we're sitting in this
classroom looking at this--

35:39.199 --> 35:42.359
we think back on Cestius,
his title,

35:42.360 --> 35:44.470
what he did,
what he achieved,

35:44.474 --> 35:47.614
and the way in which he was
memorialized.

35:47.610 --> 35:50.370
So this whole idea of
preserving memory,

35:50.367 --> 35:54.537
not only in your own time,
but into the far flung future.

35:54.539 --> 35:57.209
This tomb, as I said,
despite the fact that the

35:57.210 --> 36:00.290
burial chamber is small,
we do believe it was a family

36:00.286 --> 36:00.806
tomb.

36:00.809 --> 36:04.399
We have evidence for that,
because two bases were found

36:04.400 --> 36:06.860
that seemed to belong to this
tomb;

36:06.860 --> 36:09.570
in fact, it's Cestius' name,
or members of his family,

36:09.568 --> 36:11.868
Cestius, you can see there,
are named in these

36:11.869 --> 36:12.739
inscriptions.

36:12.739 --> 36:17.099
These have markings on the top
that suggest to us that statues

36:17.103 --> 36:19.253
stood on them,
at one point.

36:19.250 --> 36:24.400
So these were statue bases,
probably placed right in front

36:24.396 --> 36:28.006
of the entrance to the pyramidal
tomb.

36:28.010 --> 36:30.560
And if you cast your eyes over
this inscription you will not

36:30.563 --> 36:32.343
only see the name Cestius a few
times,

36:32.340 --> 36:35.610
but you will see another very
important name,

36:35.610 --> 36:37.800
and that is M.***Agrippa.

36:37.800 --> 36:41.100
That's Marcus Agrippa,
that's the Marcus Agrippa,

36:41.099 --> 36:45.889
the longtime--the boyhood
friend and longtime close

36:45.887 --> 36:51.247
confidant and onetime heir and
son-in-law of Augustus;

36:51.250 --> 36:53.000
all of those things.

36:53.000 --> 36:54.020
He's mentioned here.

36:54.018 --> 36:56.698
So he is a member also of this
family.

36:56.699 --> 36:59.989
So it demonstrates to us again
we are dealing with an

36:59.987 --> 37:01.377
aristocratic family.

37:01.380 --> 37:03.120
So all of those tombs I've
shown you thus far--

37:03.119 --> 37:05.859
the Mausoleum of Augustus,
the Tomb of Caecilia Metella,

37:05.860 --> 37:09.760
and the Tomb of Gaius
Cestius--are all examples of

37:09.760 --> 37:14.220
aristocratic tomb architecture
in the age of Augustus.

37:14.219 --> 37:19.399
Why did he choose a pyramid for
his tomb is a very interesting

37:19.396 --> 37:22.806
question to ask,
and I would suggest here--and

37:22.813 --> 37:26.053
it's not rocket science to
figure this out at all--

37:26.050 --> 37:29.760
I would suggest here though
that the reason has to do with

37:29.764 --> 37:33.804
Augustus' very important victory
over Mark Antony and Cleopatra

37:33.804 --> 37:36.024
at the Battle of Actium in 31.

37:36.018 --> 37:38.408
It was at that time,
and even before,

37:38.405 --> 37:41.915
that an interest in things
Egyptian came into Rome.

37:41.920 --> 37:47.460
We saw that Augustus himself
made reference to his victory

37:47.460 --> 37:51.400
over that pair,
over Cleopatra and Mark Antony,

37:51.398 --> 37:55.138
in the complex with the Ara
Pacis and the Mausoleum of

37:55.141 --> 37:58.821
Augustus,
by inserting that obelisk in

37:58.824 --> 38:01.134
the center;
an obelisk that I have

38:01.132 --> 38:04.042
mentioned to you was actually
brought from Egypt itself.

38:04.039 --> 38:06.499
So these references to Egypt,
initially under Augustus

38:06.496 --> 38:07.976
himself, had political import.

38:07.980 --> 38:10.320
It was there to show that
Augustus had been--

38:10.320 --> 38:14.170
that obelisk was there to show
that Augustus had prevailed over

38:14.168 --> 38:17.928
Mark Antony and Cleopatra,
and because he had prevailed,

38:17.934 --> 38:21.734
he could steal obelisks from
Egypt and bring them back to

38:21.730 --> 38:24.280
decorate Rome,
as trophies essentially.

38:24.280 --> 38:25.960
So that was a political
statement on his part.

38:25.960 --> 38:29.250
But as time went on,
Egyptomania became a kind of

38:29.248 --> 38:30.618
fashion statement.

38:30.619 --> 38:34.299
I think that it caught on;
it caught on after Egypt was

38:34.304 --> 38:36.704
made a Roman province in 30
B.C.,

38:36.699 --> 38:39.739
right after Actium,
and we begin to see this wave

38:39.744 --> 38:42.604
of things Egyptian spreading
through Rome,

38:42.599 --> 38:45.129
and it's likely that
Cestius--perhaps a combination

38:45.132 --> 38:47.092
of both,
since he's from Agrippa's

38:47.092 --> 38:49.902
family, this combination of
political reference,

38:49.900 --> 38:53.380
but also just this was an
interesting--

38:53.380 --> 38:56.080
this was the style at this
particular point,

38:56.079 --> 38:59.129
to do things in the Egyptian
manner.

38:59.130 --> 39:02.740
You might remember some of
those Egyptianizing motifs that

39:02.744 --> 39:03.924
we saw,
for example,

39:03.920 --> 39:05.630
from the Black Room at
Boscotrecase,

39:05.630 --> 39:09.660
which was also a villa that was
closely connected with the

39:09.657 --> 39:10.927
imperial family.

39:10.929 --> 39:15.079
You remember Agrippa Postumus
who was the son of Agrippa

39:15.083 --> 39:19.393
himself, born by his wife Julia,
after Agrippa's death;

39:19.389 --> 39:21.659
hence his name.

39:21.659 --> 39:25.409
Another view of the back of the
Pyramid of Cestius,

39:25.409 --> 39:29.459
the Mausoleum of Cestius,
which again shows us how well

39:29.460 --> 39:30.960
preserved it is.

39:30.960 --> 39:34.670
You can see the Aurelian Walls,
you can see the gate that we

39:34.668 --> 39:37.558
looked at before,
and you can also see that the

39:37.559 --> 39:40.199
back is actually in a modern
cemetery.

39:40.199 --> 39:42.669
This is the so-called
Protestant Cemetery,

39:42.668 --> 39:46.278
and if you are in Rome and have
time, this is one of the most

39:46.282 --> 39:48.212
interesting places to visit.

39:48.210 --> 39:50.040
It's again a bit off the beaten
track.

39:50.039 --> 39:52.929
Not that many tourists go
there, but those that do are

39:52.925 --> 39:56.285
rewarded,
because it's a cemetery where

39:56.289 --> 40:00.909
many expatriates were buried --
people who flocked to Rome

40:00.914 --> 40:02.364
because they loved it.

40:02.360 --> 40:06.700
Authors, scholars,
poets, painters came to Rome,

40:06.699 --> 40:09.289
ended up spending the rest of
their lives there--

40:09.289 --> 40:11.199
coming from all different
countries around the world--

40:11.199 --> 40:13.009
spending the rest of their
lives there,

40:13.010 --> 40:15.530
dying there,
and eventually being buried in

40:15.534 --> 40:17.704
the so-called Protestant
Cemetery.

40:17.699 --> 40:20.189
Percy Bysshe Shelley,
for example,

40:20.190 --> 40:22.910
is buried there,
as is John Keats.

40:22.909 --> 40:25.179
And the Keats tomb,
Keats marker,

40:25.184 --> 40:28.104
is my favorite by far in this
cemetery.

40:28.099 --> 40:32.049
You can see his tombstone here,
which doesn't even give his

40:32.054 --> 40:35.754
name, it just identifies him;
and you'll remember he died

40:35.753 --> 40:38.453
very, very young,
in his early twenties I think

40:38.452 --> 40:39.042
it was.

40:39.039 --> 40:41.579
You see him here referred to
only as "the young English

40:41.579 --> 40:42.139
poet."

40:42.139 --> 40:45.609
And down below it says,
"Here lies one whose name

40:45.614 --> 40:47.324
was writ in water."

40:47.320 --> 40:49.400
It's an amazing stone.

40:49.400 --> 40:52.700
It does show the lyre,
which makes reference,

40:52.704 --> 40:57.514
of course, to the fluency and
so on of his mellifluous poetry.

40:57.510 --> 41:00.040
And over here,
a companion of his,

41:00.039 --> 41:03.489
Joseph Severn,
who doesn't hesitate to mention

41:03.487 --> 41:06.167
his relationship to John Keats.

41:06.170 --> 41:10.970
So you see Keats' name in
Severn's tombstone but not in

41:10.965 --> 41:13.005
Keats' own tombstone.

41:13.010 --> 41:16.320
But I show this to you just
because it's one of those more

41:16.322 --> 41:18.012
fascinating places in Rome.

41:18.010 --> 41:20.470
And many of the tombs,
by the way--there are many

41:20.467 --> 41:23.227
tombstones here that clearly are
based on ancient Roman

41:23.231 --> 41:24.001
prototypes.

41:24.000 --> 41:26.070
So it's a fascinating place to
wander.

41:26.070 --> 41:28.380
And by the way,
you can do that in our own

41:28.378 --> 41:31.138
Grove Street Cemetery,
where there are a number of

41:31.135 --> 41:34.115
tombs that are done very much in
the Roman style.

41:34.119 --> 41:38.629
If you think the Tomb of
Cestius is unusual,

41:38.630 --> 41:43.210
the weirdest tomb by far in
Rome, from ancient Rome,

41:43.210 --> 41:46.600
is the one that I turn to now,
and this is the Tomb of the

41:46.599 --> 41:49.529
baker Eurysaces,
the Tomb of the baker Eurysaces

41:49.532 --> 41:52.732
that was put up in Rome in the
late first century B.C.

41:52.730 --> 41:56.640
And that again is another tomb
from the age of Augustus.

41:56.639 --> 42:00.439
But in this case we believe,
although the inscription

42:00.438 --> 42:04.548
doesn't tell us this for sure,
but we believe it is highly

42:04.550 --> 42:08.010
likely that Eurysaces is from a
different level of Roman

42:08.014 --> 42:10.354
society,
not an aristocrat,

42:10.347 --> 42:13.237
but a working man who
probably--

42:13.239 --> 42:18.189
either he himself or his family
were slaves originally,

42:18.190 --> 42:19.770
eventually freed.

42:19.768 --> 42:23.758
He takes up the profession of
bread making and he ends up

42:23.760 --> 42:28.110
building this extraordinary tomb
that I'm going to show you in

42:28.108 --> 42:29.888
some detail, in Rome.

42:29.889 --> 42:33.279
As we look at this particular
view, we see the Tomb of

42:33.277 --> 42:36.477
Eurysaces, as it looks today;
it's right over here.

42:36.480 --> 42:40.300
We see it has behind it a great
travertine gate,

42:40.302 --> 42:43.072
which is actually later in
date.

42:43.070 --> 42:44.860
It dates to the time of the
emperor Claudius.

42:44.860 --> 42:46.410
We'll talk about it next week.

42:46.409 --> 42:48.889
So you have to think that away
for the moment.

42:48.889 --> 42:52.849
That was not standing when the
Tomb of Eurysaces was put up.

42:52.849 --> 42:55.779
You can also see,
however, that this gate was

42:55.782 --> 42:57.852
placed in an aqueduct system.

42:57.849 --> 43:03.009
That aqueduct was begun during
the time of Augustus.

43:03.010 --> 43:05.720
So you can imagine that at
least some of that aqueduct

43:05.719 --> 43:08.379
system stood at the time that
this tomb was built.

43:08.380 --> 43:11.930
The tomb, as you can see here,
was a three-storied structure,

43:11.929 --> 43:13.999
very eccentric in its
appearance.

43:14.000 --> 43:18.470
The ground line today is much
lower than the modern ground

43:18.469 --> 43:19.019
line.

43:19.018 --> 43:22.038
So you have to go right up to
the monument.

43:22.039 --> 43:24.029
You can look down at the first
story.

43:24.030 --> 43:25.530
So you're only seeing a part of
the first story here.

43:25.530 --> 43:29.700
You can see that it is made of
tufa blocks.

43:29.699 --> 43:32.529
You can also see the interior
is concrete,

43:32.530 --> 43:34.710
the core of the structure is
concrete,

43:34.710 --> 43:37.000
and then on the second and
third stories,

43:37.000 --> 43:40.950
the tomb is faced with
travertine.

43:40.949 --> 43:44.919
So travertine again used for
tomb facing in the age in

43:44.916 --> 43:45.736
Augustus.

43:45.739 --> 43:53.169
And we see this very unusual
design where there are these

43:53.172 --> 43:59.412
great--not piers--cylinders,
great cylinders;

43:59.409 --> 44:02.349
great cylinders that are placed
here vertically,

44:02.346 --> 44:05.966
and then cylinders placed in
the next tier horizontally.

44:05.969 --> 44:07.869
Vertically placed cylinders.

44:07.869 --> 44:09.169
They're not columns.

44:09.170 --> 44:10.370
You don't see any capitals.

44:10.369 --> 44:11.569
They're very fat.

44:11.570 --> 44:14.690
So they are cylinders,
vertically, and then

44:14.693 --> 44:15.813
horizontally.

44:15.809 --> 44:18.659
And some scholars have
suggested, and I think quite

44:18.663 --> 44:21.003
convincingly,
that these may actually make

44:21.003 --> 44:23.403
reference to what were grain
measures.

44:23.400 --> 44:27.140
Grain measures were these
cylindrical structures in silos,

44:27.135 --> 44:30.665
in a sense, in which they
stored grain in ancient Roman

44:30.673 --> 44:31.333
times.

44:31.329 --> 44:34.829
So that is very possible,
since we know that this man was

44:34.831 --> 44:38.261
a baker,
that this may make reference to

44:38.255 --> 44:43.635
these grain storage cylinders
that were used in the process of

44:43.637 --> 44:44.517
baking.

44:44.518 --> 44:46.118
With regard to the siting of
the tomb--

44:46.119 --> 44:49.969
this is particularly
interesting--I show you this

44:49.967 --> 44:53.297
plan over here,
which indicates to us--here you

44:53.302 --> 44:56.542
can actually see the plan of the
Tomb of Eurysaces,

44:56.539 --> 44:58.909
and you can see that it is very
unusual in shape.

44:58.909 --> 45:00.969
It is trapezoidal in shape.

45:00.969 --> 45:03.299
Why is it trapezoidal in shape?

45:03.300 --> 45:07.710
It probably is trapezoidal in
shape because the tomb was

45:07.708 --> 45:12.678
located on a piece of property
that was between two major roads

45:12.679 --> 45:17.329
of Rome that exited and entered
the city at this particular

45:17.329 --> 45:20.859
point: the so-called Via
Labicana and the Via

45:20.856 --> 45:22.456
Praenestina.

45:22.460 --> 45:26.830
So two major Roman roads that
come into the city at this

45:26.833 --> 45:27.473
point.

45:27.469 --> 45:28.759
And remember,
the Tomb of Eurysaces,

45:28.760 --> 45:31.200
like all Roman tombs during
this period,

45:31.199 --> 45:34.279
was outside the Servian Walls,
so built outside the walls,

45:34.280 --> 45:39.610
but between these two streets.

45:39.610 --> 45:42.680
Now this model over here,
which by the way comes from a

45:42.677 --> 45:45.687
museum in Rome that again is off
the beaten track,

45:49.476 --> 45:52.486
Romana,
which is in a building built by

45:52.485 --> 45:55.695
Mussolini in the 1930s for a
World's Fair,

45:55.699 --> 45:59.049
and the buildings--and it and
other buildings like it out

45:59.050 --> 46:02.140
there,
in a place--part of Rome that

46:02.137 --> 46:06.527
we call EUR from Esposizione
Universale di Roma,

46:06.530 --> 46:08.770
E-U-R, EUR.

46:08.768 --> 46:12.038
That whole area built up by
Mussolini for the World's Fair.

46:12.039 --> 46:15.379
But the buildings were so
substantial that they decided to

46:15.378 --> 46:18.948
keep them, and they still stand,
and this museum was placed in

46:18.952 --> 46:19.892
one of them.

46:19.889 --> 46:23.149
It is a museum of casts,
where you can go and see works

46:23.150 --> 46:26.530
of Roman art and architecture
from not only Rome but from

46:26.534 --> 46:28.894
around the world,
all in one place.

46:28.889 --> 46:30.319
Now they're not originals,
they're casts,

46:30.320 --> 46:33.640
but it'd be a great place to
study for the exam for this

46:33.644 --> 46:34.724
course,
for example,

46:34.724 --> 46:37.064
because you can walk around and
see so many of the buildings

46:37.061 --> 46:38.131
that we've talked about.

46:38.130 --> 46:40.740
And there are these wonderful
models of many of them.

46:40.739 --> 46:45.189
And we see here a model of this
aqueduct, the later gate here,

46:45.188 --> 46:47.228
and the Tomb of Eurysaces.

46:47.230 --> 46:50.090
And this shows you very well
the way in which these two

46:50.086 --> 46:51.776
streets,
the Labicana and the

46:51.779 --> 46:54.219
Praenestina, came into Rome at
this point,

46:58.768 --> 47:03.628
And this--it is clear that
Eurysaces--

47:03.630 --> 47:05.650
and I'll tell you how he did
this in a moment--

47:05.650 --> 47:09.680
had enough money that he was
able to buy what was certainly

47:09.677 --> 47:13.007
one of the most choice pieces of
real estate,

47:13.010 --> 47:16.210
outside the walls of Rome,
one in which everyone who came

47:16.213 --> 47:19.703
into Rome from either of those
two thoroughfares would see the

47:21.480 --> 47:26.010
This is a man who wanted to be
remembered for posterity.

47:26.010 --> 47:29.320
It's another example of how
tombs were used for the purposes

47:29.322 --> 47:31.122
of retaining memory over time.

47:31.119 --> 47:37.009
This is also interesting
because it shows what happened.

47:37.010 --> 47:40.010
What you see with the dotted
lines here is one of these later

47:40.014 --> 47:42.274
gates that was made for the
Aurelian Walls.

47:42.268 --> 47:45.128
And in this case,
the Tomb of Eurysaces was right

47:45.128 --> 47:48.398
smack dab in the middle of where
they wanted to build an

47:48.402 --> 47:50.132
outcropping of this wall.

47:50.130 --> 47:53.790
In this case they decided that
they were not going to build the

47:53.789 --> 47:56.149
wall into it,
but that they were going to

47:56.150 --> 47:58.040
build the wall on top of it.

47:58.039 --> 48:01.139
But fortunately,
again, they did not destroy it

48:01.135 --> 48:02.005
completely.

48:02.010 --> 48:05.360
They did shear off the front of
the tomb,

48:06.840 --> 48:10.390
but they allowed the debris to
fall into the tower,

48:10.389 --> 48:12.699
and then they covered it up.

48:12.699 --> 48:17.029
So when this tower was
eventually torn down to free the

48:17.027 --> 48:20.607
Tomb of Eurysaces,
they found the fourth wall and

48:20.608 --> 48:24.338
the debris from that wall,
including a portrait statue and

48:24.338 --> 48:26.548
an inscription inside the
debris,

48:26.550 --> 48:29.390
which was extremely fortunate,
and which allows us to

48:29.385 --> 48:30.855
reconstruct the monument.

48:30.860 --> 48:35.980
Here you see the model in this
EUR Museum that shows you what

48:35.978 --> 48:39.048
the tomb looked like in
antiquity.

48:39.050 --> 48:41.940
You see the three levels,
the three tiers.

48:41.940 --> 48:44.460
You see the entrance to the
burial chamber here.

48:46.849 --> 48:49.049
this is the part that no longer
survives.

48:51.500 --> 48:54.340
now gone, but we can again
reconstruct it from those

48:54.340 --> 48:55.010
remains.

48:55.010 --> 48:57.950
And you see them here,
and you see it was relatively

48:57.954 --> 49:00.964
plain on three tiers,
except for a portrait statue of

49:00.956 --> 49:04.516
Eurysaces and his wife,
an inscription down below.

49:04.518 --> 49:07.758
And you need to think away the
frieze up there,

49:07.760 --> 49:10.860
because the frieze was probably
not on this side of the

49:10.860 --> 49:12.750
monument,
although there was a frieze

49:12.748 --> 49:14.078
around the other three sides.

49:14.079 --> 49:17.089
You can see one of those sides
here, and I'll show that frieze

49:17.085 --> 49:18.115
to you momentarily.

49:18.119 --> 49:22.259
This is a view of the tomb
again, where we can see so well

49:22.255 --> 49:24.645
those cylinders on two stories.

49:24.650 --> 49:30.160
And you can also see here that
in the area between the vertical

49:30.157 --> 49:33.867
and the horizontal cylinders,
on three sides of the monument,

49:33.869 --> 49:36.179
there is an inscription,
and it repeats over and over

49:36.177 --> 49:38.567
again,
and it tells us that this

49:38.570 --> 49:41.290
monument was put up by
Eurysaces,

49:41.289 --> 49:47.589
Marcus Vergilius Eurysaces,
who was pistor and

49:47.586 --> 49:51.066
redemptor--
p-i-s-t-o-r,

49:51.068 --> 49:54.508
r-e-d-e-m-p-t-o-
r--pistor and

49:54.510 --> 49:56.010
redemptor.

49:56.010 --> 50:00.140
That means master baker and
contractor--the contractor is

50:00.141 --> 50:04.201
the most important part--master
baker and contractor.

50:04.199 --> 50:09.089
We know this is a man who made
bread and sold it to the Roman

50:09.085 --> 50:09.815
armies.

50:09.820 --> 50:13.910
This was a pretty lucrative
thing to do in the age of

50:13.914 --> 50:18.014
Augustus when there was so much
military conquest.

50:18.010 --> 50:20.630
He made a fortune selling bread
to the Roman armies,

50:20.630 --> 50:23.850
and it is with that fortune
that he was able to buy this

50:23.851 --> 50:27.311
choice piece of real estate and
to put up this extraordinary

50:27.309 --> 50:29.829
monument in the late first
century B.C.

50:29.829 --> 50:32.369
The portrait relief still
survives.

50:32.369 --> 50:34.729
It's in the Capitoline Museums
today.

50:34.730 --> 50:36.420
You see it here.

50:36.420 --> 50:38.430
It had fallen in again to the
debris,

50:38.429 --> 50:41.589
from the fourth side,
but here it is with Eurysaces

50:41.594 --> 50:44.864
standing next to his wife,
Atistia--we know her name and

50:44.856 --> 50:47.916
I'll tell you how in a moment--
Atistia, in that portrait

50:47.922 --> 50:48.402
relief.

50:48.400 --> 50:51.060
And we're not going to go into
this in any detail,

50:51.059 --> 50:54.439
but if you compare it to the
figures of Augustus and his

50:54.443 --> 50:56.223
family,
from the Ara Pacis,

50:56.215 --> 50:59.865
I think you'll agree with me
that the Ara Pacis is serving as

50:59.869 --> 51:03.049
a model,
and that this portrait group is

51:03.054 --> 51:07.444
clearly based on aristocratic--
even though this is probably a

51:07.438 --> 51:11.408
middle-class pair,
formerly from a slave family,

51:11.414 --> 51:12.744
freed people.

51:12.739 --> 51:16.659
They are shown here very much
as if they are members of the

51:16.663 --> 51:20.593
court, wearing similar costumes,
depicted in a similar way,

51:20.585 --> 51:22.475
with similar hairstyles.

51:22.480 --> 51:24.090
And I point to just one detail.

51:24.090 --> 51:29.040
If you look at this view of
Livia, on the Ara Pacis,

51:29.039 --> 51:30.789
Augustus' wife,
and you see the wonderful way

51:30.789 --> 51:32.579
in which the artist has depicted
her hand,

51:32.579 --> 51:35.949
the shape of her hand showing
underneath her garment here;

51:35.949 --> 51:40.139
the same is done here for
Atistia, you can see--and that's

51:40.144 --> 51:42.284
A-t-i-s-t-i-a--for Atistia.

51:42.280 --> 51:45.050
You can see her hand.

51:45.050 --> 51:46.800
In fact, it's even better done
here because you can see the

51:46.795 --> 51:50.305
shape of the knuckles and so on,
underneath the garment,

51:50.306 --> 51:55.006
the very diaphanous garment
that she wears.

51:55.010 --> 51:57.070
So clearly a very special
portrait artist,

51:57.065 --> 51:59.015
probably hired to do these
portraits;

51:59.018 --> 52:04.648
a portrait artist who may have
been hired at great expense.

52:04.650 --> 52:07.800
And also very significant,
and in keeping with what we saw

52:07.800 --> 52:09.790
for the Tomb of Caecilia
Metella,

52:09.789 --> 52:14.229
is the fact that although the
tomb is faced in travertine and

52:14.233 --> 52:18.013
the relief around the monument
is in travertine,

52:18.010 --> 52:21.040
this is done in marble,
in, if I remember correctly,

52:21.039 --> 52:24.009
Greek marble, as well.

52:24.010 --> 52:27.480
So imported marble that is
brought from elsewhere and at

52:27.478 --> 52:31.578
greater expense is used for the
most important portrait relief.

52:31.579 --> 52:34.599
The scenes around the--the
scenes,

52:34.599 --> 52:37.819
the frieze scenes,
are particularly interesting

52:37.820 --> 52:41.180
because they depict in the
greatest of detail the

52:41.179 --> 52:43.839
profession of the making of
bread.

52:43.840 --> 52:49.290
They depict Eurysaces' daily
achievement of making bread that

52:49.293 --> 52:52.023
he sold to the Roman armies.

52:52.018 --> 52:54.168
I'm going to just show you the
scenes very quickly,

52:54.170 --> 52:56.150
and you can see the style is
very different.

52:56.150 --> 52:58.510
It's a much more journalistic
style,

52:58.510 --> 53:02.350
with figures that don't have
the elegant proportions that we

53:02.347 --> 53:06.347
saw in the portrait relief,
and it is carved on travertine,

53:06.347 --> 53:07.337
not on marble.

53:07.340 --> 53:12.270
We see here the grain being
ground between two stones,

53:12.266 --> 53:18.026
and we see the way in which
these men in tunics worked that.

53:18.030 --> 53:21.900
We also see that the upper
stone is rotated by a mule that

53:21.902 --> 53:25.842
is attached to a wooden handle
that comes off the uppermost

53:25.842 --> 53:26.932
stone there.

53:26.929 --> 53:29.579
We have millstones just like
this, from Pompeii,

53:29.579 --> 53:31.779
and I show you the actual
millstones.

53:31.780 --> 53:34.910
So these depictions on the Tomb
of Eurysaces:

53:34.909 --> 53:38.819
very accurate in terms or what
millstones looked like in

53:38.822 --> 53:39.822
antiquity.

53:39.820 --> 53:44.430
Another scene here in which we
see two men at a table with big

53:44.429 --> 53:47.149
gobs of dough,
that you can see here,

53:47.150 --> 53:49.040
dough, for the bread.

53:49.039 --> 53:53.279
Another scene--this is one of
the more important scenes--where

53:53.275 --> 53:57.505
we see four men standing behind
a table, that are forming that

53:57.512 --> 53:59.042
dough into loaves.

53:59.039 --> 54:04.419
And over here a magistrate,
who has a short-sleeved but

54:04.422 --> 54:08.012
long garment,
is supervising them.

54:08.010 --> 54:10.190
And the four men are very
interestingly rendered because

54:10.186 --> 54:11.886
they're rendered almost exactly
the same.

54:11.889 --> 54:13.839
If you look,
if you compare this to the Ara

54:13.842 --> 54:16.032
Pacis where figures are
represented in different

54:16.027 --> 54:17.747
postures,
a lot of variety,

54:17.751 --> 54:19.961
clearly based on Greek
prototypes.

54:19.960 --> 54:21.750
Here we see something very
different.

54:21.750 --> 54:25.710
The major objective of the
artist is to get the story

54:25.706 --> 54:29.356
across, to show these men making
these loaves.

54:29.360 --> 54:30.720
But look at them.

54:30.719 --> 54:33.879
Each one--they're bare chested,
and we'll see why they're bare

54:33.880 --> 54:34.400
chested.

54:34.400 --> 54:36.950
It's hot in this part of the
bakery.

54:36.949 --> 54:38.439
So they've taken off their
shirts.

54:38.440 --> 54:41.450
There's some attempt to depict
their musculature.

54:41.449 --> 54:44.279
But they're essentially shown
in exactly the same way,

54:44.280 --> 54:47.350
the same curly hair,
almost as if they were cut from

54:47.347 --> 54:50.227
a cookie cutter,
because again it's not the form

54:50.231 --> 54:52.481
that's of interest to the artist
here,

54:52.480 --> 54:54.220
but getting that narrative
across.

54:54.219 --> 54:57.009
And if you try to figure out
whose legs belong to whom,

54:57.009 --> 54:59.539
believe me, you'll have a
difficult time of it.

54:59.539 --> 55:02.849
So the artist is not--is much
less concerned with formal

55:02.849 --> 55:05.859
things than he is with getting
the story across.

55:05.860 --> 55:08.320
With regard to why they've
taken off their shirts,

55:08.315 --> 55:09.815
they're right near the oven.

55:09.820 --> 55:13.760
And I show you the scene that
depicts the dome-shaped oven in

55:13.757 --> 55:16.117
which the loaves are being
baked,

55:16.119 --> 55:19.919
and you can see that this oven
looks very much like a modern

55:19.918 --> 55:22.468
pizza oven,
and in fact the pole that they

55:22.469 --> 55:24.569
use,
the wooden pole with the flat

55:24.565 --> 55:28.035
end, is just the sort of thing
you see at BAR or any other

55:28.039 --> 55:30.839
major pizza place,
either in New Haven or

55:30.842 --> 55:32.442
elsewhere in the world.

55:32.440 --> 55:34.880
And, in fact,
these dome-shaped ovens are

55:34.875 --> 55:36.575
still used in rural areas.

55:36.579 --> 55:41.599
And I took this view in Greece,
in a small rural town,

55:41.599 --> 55:44.949
and you see these in Italy in
some very small towns as well,

55:44.949 --> 55:47.729
still being done in exactly the
same way.

55:47.730 --> 55:50.900
There are a number--because of
the cylinders on the Tomb of

55:50.898 --> 55:53.248
Eurysaces,
there are some scholars who've

55:53.246 --> 55:56.246
suggested that the Tomb of
Eurysaces is in the form of a

55:56.248 --> 55:56.848
bakery .

55:56.849 --> 56:01.059
While I do believe that there
is reference to those grain--

56:01.059 --> 56:04.469
to those storage bins,
silos that were used for the

56:04.474 --> 56:07.994
storage of grain,
I do not think that the Tomb of

56:07.990 --> 56:10.560
Eurysaces is in the form of an
oven.

56:10.559 --> 56:13.009
It makes reference to baking,
but I don't think it's in the

56:13.012 --> 56:14.792
form of an oven,
because this is what Roman

56:14.789 --> 56:15.719
ovens looked like.

56:15.719 --> 56:16.759
They were dome-shaped.

56:16.760 --> 56:20.970
This has a very different
appearance, as you can see.

56:20.969 --> 56:24.629
Perhaps the most important
scene in the frieze is this one,

56:24.630 --> 56:28.690
where we see two--we see the
loaves have been baked,

56:28.690 --> 56:33.140
they're ready to go to market,
and they're put in these large

56:33.143 --> 56:35.843
baskets--
you can see them here--and then

56:35.838 --> 56:39.098
they are weighed in this scale,
in this ancient scale.

56:39.099 --> 56:42.979
And I think this is a form of
private propaganda on the part

56:42.976 --> 56:44.616
of the baker Eurysaces.

56:44.619 --> 56:47.799
What he is telling the public
who gaze up on this tomb,

56:47.800 --> 56:50.440
not only in his own day but for
posterity,

56:50.440 --> 56:54.510
is: "My bread was always,
not only of high quality,

56:54.510 --> 56:56.410
but of the appropriate weight.

56:56.409 --> 56:58.099
I never cheated the public.

56:58.099 --> 56:59.329
I treated you fairly.

56:59.329 --> 57:02.109
I was an honest baker and
contractor."

57:02.110 --> 57:04.520
I think that's what the message
is here.

57:04.518 --> 57:07.148
And, in fact,
you may think this is a

57:07.153 --> 57:10.183
stretch,
but I think that one could

57:10.181 --> 57:14.971
easily compare this report that
Eurysaces provides of his

57:14.967 --> 57:19.837
profession on the frieze of this
tomb as a kind of baker's

57:19.838 --> 57:23.598
version of Augustus' Res
Gestae.

57:23.599 --> 57:28.469
The list of things accomplished
during his life is laid out in

57:28.474 --> 57:32.154
narrative form,
for not only his contemporaries

57:32.152 --> 57:34.472
but for posterity to see.

57:34.469 --> 57:37.789
The portrait group again--and I
mentioned that there was an

57:37.786 --> 57:40.356
inscription found with that
portrait group;

57:40.360 --> 57:44.390
a very interesting inscription
which tells us that Eurysaces

57:44.385 --> 57:47.385
put up this monument to his wife
Atistia,

57:47.389 --> 57:50.859
and Atistia's bodily remains,
he says,

57:50.860 --> 57:55.310
are buried in hoc
panario--in hoc

57:55.309 --> 57:58.639
panario,
in this panarium.

57:58.639 --> 57:59.579
What is a panarium?

57:59.579 --> 58:02.259
A breadbasket;
which is again why scholars

58:02.259 --> 58:04.849
have said, "Well the whole
tomb is in the form of an

58:04.851 --> 58:05.501
oven."

58:05.500 --> 58:08.930
But I think the breadbasket
being referred to here is not

58:08.931 --> 58:12.551
the tomb, but rather the urn in
which Atistia's remains were

58:12.545 --> 58:13.215
placed.

58:13.219 --> 58:15.119
In the excavation in the
nineteenth century,

58:15.119 --> 58:17.729
when that later gateway was
removed,

58:17.730 --> 58:21.950
they found one urn,
one urn, not two urns,

58:21.949 --> 58:25.459
one urn, presumably the urn of
Atistia,

58:25.460 --> 58:29.720
and that urn was in the
form--it was drawn at that time.

58:29.719 --> 58:33.429
And we can see this view of it
here, a cross-section,

58:33.432 --> 58:36.292
the lid, and the main body of
the urn.

58:36.289 --> 58:39.439
And you can see it looks like a
breadbasket.

58:39.440 --> 58:42.990
And I show you--we have lots of
examples of urns in the form of

58:42.987 --> 58:44.817
breadbaskets from Roman times.

58:44.820 --> 58:46.410
There's one in the Metropolitan
Museum of Art,

58:46.409 --> 58:48.949
and any of you who are going
down there anytime soon to look

58:48.947 --> 58:50.707
at Roman antiquities and other
things,

58:50.710 --> 58:51.970
you can see one there.

58:51.969 --> 58:54.139
This one is in the National
Museum in Rome.

58:54.139 --> 58:58.489
And women's remains were often
placed in breadbaskets to

58:58.487 --> 59:02.597
accentuate or to speak to their
domestic virtues,

59:02.599 --> 59:05.719
if they were good at taking
care of the house and baking

59:05.719 --> 59:06.739
bread and so on.

59:06.739 --> 59:10.459
But in this particular case I
think it is much more likely

59:10.456 --> 59:13.126
that the reference here is not
to her,

59:13.130 --> 59:17.650
to Atistia's cleverness as a
housekeeper,

59:17.650 --> 59:23.000
but rather to her husband's
profession,

59:23.000 --> 59:24.940
which is very,
very interesting in terms of

59:24.938 --> 59:27.478
what it tells us about the
gender wars of antiquity,

59:27.480 --> 59:30.910
that here's a tomb that has
been put up by this baker,

59:30.909 --> 59:33.329
with his money that he's made
from his profession,

59:33.329 --> 59:35.629
in honor of his wife.

59:35.630 --> 59:39.890
But what he depicts -- what he
is preserving for posterity is

59:39.885 --> 59:42.575
not the outline of his wife's
life,

59:42.579 --> 59:45.599
but the outline of his life,
what he has accomplished.

59:45.599 --> 59:48.399
His name is plastered on three
sides of the monument.

59:48.400 --> 59:51.890
He's got three sides of the
monument with the successive

59:51.891 --> 59:55.321
phases of the baking of bread in
all of its aspects.

59:55.320 --> 59:58.240
Yes, he has a very nice
portrait relief of his wife,

59:58.237 --> 1:00:00.637
but of course he's standing by
her side.

1:00:00.639 --> 1:00:02.369
And he does mention her name
down below.

1:00:02.369 --> 1:00:04.059
So he gives her some due.

1:00:04.059 --> 1:00:05.939
But this monument,
as far as posterity is

1:00:05.938 --> 1:00:08.818
concerned,
is about Eurysaces and not

1:00:08.822 --> 1:00:11.732
about his wife,
and I think it tells us again

1:00:11.726 --> 1:00:14.106
very--
a great deal about the motives

1:00:14.114 --> 1:00:16.234
of this particular individual.

1:00:16.230 --> 1:00:20.790
I want to say just a very few
words about two other tombs out

1:00:20.793 --> 1:00:24.523
on the Via Appia in Rome,
the Appian Way again.

1:00:24.518 --> 1:00:27.838
And I show you a view of the
Via Appia, as it looks today.

1:00:27.840 --> 1:00:31.100
You can see that although much
of the road is modern,

1:00:31.097 --> 1:00:34.727
you do find bits and pieces of
ancient ground out there.

1:00:34.730 --> 1:00:38.100
You can see some polygonal
blocks here and some rut marks

1:00:38.103 --> 1:00:41.203
from the ancient road,
and you have to be very careful

1:00:41.199 --> 1:00:43.609
when you drive out there in your
Cinquecento,

1:00:43.610 --> 1:00:46.110
or whatever--or you bike ride
out there,

1:00:46.110 --> 1:00:48.900
as this fellow is doing,
or you take your motorbike or

1:00:48.898 --> 1:00:51.188
whatever--
because if you're going too

1:00:51.193 --> 1:00:54.603
quickly and you don't expect it,
all of a sudden you hit some

1:00:54.597 --> 1:00:56.697
ancient road,
and that makes a huge

1:00:56.695 --> 1:01:00.215
difference in terms of your
ability to move forward.

1:01:00.219 --> 1:01:02.769
I want to show you one tomb,
very fleetingly,

1:01:02.773 --> 1:01:06.023
out there, which is the one
that you see over here on the

1:01:06.023 --> 1:01:07.943
left-hand side of the screen.

1:01:07.940 --> 1:01:09.950
There are remains of many tombs
on the Via Appia.

1:01:09.949 --> 1:01:12.519
Most of them are just piles of
concrete, but a few of them are

1:01:12.523 --> 1:01:14.383
better preserved,
and this is one of them.

1:01:14.380 --> 1:01:20.330
It's a tomb of freedmen and
freedwomen from 13 B.C.

1:01:20.329 --> 1:01:21.909
to A.D. 5.

1:01:21.909 --> 1:01:25.429
We call it the Rabirius Tomb
because of an inscription that

1:01:25.429 --> 1:01:29.009
tells us members of the Rabirius
family were buried here.

1:01:29.010 --> 1:01:32.550
The reason that I show it to
you is that the eccentric tombs

1:01:32.550 --> 1:01:36.210
that I've shown you today are
absolutely marvelous and tell us

1:01:36.210 --> 1:01:39.210
a lot about the Romans as
patrons and their desires

1:01:41.010 --> 1:01:45.050
But it is not--those are not
the conventional tomb types.

1:01:45.050 --> 1:01:47.700
We see many more of this sort
of thing, which we call a house

1:01:47.695 --> 1:01:49.895
tomb, a tomb that resembles a
house essentially.

1:01:58.469 --> 1:02:02.169
either vertical or horizontal,
but these horizontal ones

1:02:02.170 --> 1:02:04.460
represent members of the family.

1:02:04.460 --> 1:02:07.410
Some may be deceased,
some may not be deceased.

1:02:07.409 --> 1:02:10.579
The message is that even if
someone has died before another,

1:02:10.579 --> 1:02:13.209
that they will eventually be
re-united together in

1:02:13.213 --> 1:02:14.023
perpetuity.

1:02:14.018 --> 1:02:15.668
But if you look at this
carefully,

1:02:15.670 --> 1:02:19.670
you will see that what it looks
like is as if these individuals

1:02:19.672 --> 1:02:23.742
are still alive and looking out
of the window of their tomb,

1:02:23.739 --> 1:02:26.799
as if out of the window of a
house;

1:02:26.800 --> 1:02:30.520
this very close association in
the minds of the Romans between

1:02:30.521 --> 1:02:33.331
houses of the living and houses
of the dead.

1:02:33.329 --> 1:02:35.999
And that is absolutely the case
here.

1:02:36.000 --> 1:02:38.440
And you'll remember,
we can trace this all the way

1:02:38.438 --> 1:02:40.078
back to the eighth century B.C.

1:02:40.079 --> 1:02:43.899
You remember the Villanovan hut
urn that I showed you,

1:02:43.900 --> 1:02:46.700
and I told you that women's
remains were placed in--

1:02:46.699 --> 1:02:51.179
women's cremated remains--were
placed in these huts that

1:02:51.181 --> 1:02:53.301
resembled Romulus' huts.

1:02:53.300 --> 1:02:57.210
And so this whole idea of a
house serving as a tomb goes way

1:02:57.208 --> 1:03:00.348
back,
and continues to be a leitmotif

1:03:00.347 --> 1:03:05.217
of Roman tomb architecture
throughout the entire history of

1:03:05.224 --> 1:03:08.684
Roman architecture,
and it's something that I hope

1:03:08.677 --> 1:03:09.737
you'll keep in mind.

1:03:09.739 --> 1:03:12.459
Also just in passing,
I want to mention--

1:03:12.460 --> 1:03:15.110
we've looked--the tombs that
we've looked at thus far today

1:03:15.114 --> 1:03:17.584
have been--
they've been of all different

1:03:17.576 --> 1:03:20.446
social classes,
from emperor to freed slave,

1:03:20.452 --> 1:03:23.512
but at the same time they have
all been tombs,

1:03:23.510 --> 1:03:26.340
including the Rabirius Tomb,
of the well-to-do.

1:03:26.340 --> 1:03:28.810
If these were freed slaves,
they were ones that made a

1:03:28.806 --> 1:03:30.856
fortune,
like Eurysaces did selling

1:03:30.864 --> 1:03:34.044
bread to the Roman army,
and with that fortune were able

1:03:34.043 --> 1:03:36.703
to build monumental tombs,
at great expense.

1:03:36.699 --> 1:03:39.029
But there were lots and lots of
people obviously,

1:03:39.030 --> 1:03:42.090
who lived in Rome and Pompeii
and in other cities who could

1:03:42.092 --> 1:03:44.842
not afford those kinds of tombs,
and you might be asking

1:03:44.840 --> 1:03:46.490
yourselves,
"Where are all of those

1:03:46.487 --> 1:03:47.337
people buried?"

1:03:47.340 --> 1:03:49.620
Well they tended to be buried
underground,

1:03:49.619 --> 1:03:52.369
in what we call
columbaria --

1:03:52.371 --> 1:03:56.251
c-o-l-u-m-b-a-r-i-a,
columbaria--underground

1:03:56.248 --> 1:04:00.318
burial chambers,
that were either burial clubs

1:04:00.315 --> 1:04:05.085
that you could join for a small
amount of money;

1:04:05.090 --> 1:04:08.730
you could join one of these
clubs, buy into your last

1:04:08.730 --> 1:04:10.480
resting place that way.

1:04:10.480 --> 1:04:13.850
Or they were burial chambers
that were created by the very

1:04:13.846 --> 1:04:16.676
well to do, for example,
the emperor and empress,

1:04:16.681 --> 1:04:18.041
Augustus and Livia.

1:04:18.039 --> 1:04:21.249
We know they had thousands of
slaves, literally thousands of

1:04:21.250 --> 1:04:21.740
slaves.

1:04:21.739 --> 1:04:24.079
We have a record of some of
Livia's slaves.

1:04:24.079 --> 1:04:26.389
She had slaves,
not only to tend the garden and

1:04:26.393 --> 1:04:28.763
that kind of thing,
but she had a masseuse,

1:04:28.764 --> 1:04:31.844
she had several hairstylists,
and she even had a slave,

1:04:31.842 --> 1:04:34.972
we know, who set her pearls,
that was her whole job was to

1:04:34.971 --> 1:04:37.221
set her pearls,
day in and day out.

1:04:37.219 --> 1:04:39.099
So they had tons and tons of
slaves,

1:04:39.099 --> 1:04:43.159
and some of those very well to
do also established these burial

1:04:43.163 --> 1:04:47.033
areas where their slaves could
find a last resting place.

1:04:47.030 --> 1:04:51.030
And, in fact,
the one that I show you here,

1:04:51.030 --> 1:04:52.800
the Vigna Codini,
is one such,

1:04:52.800 --> 1:04:55.860
that belonged to the
Augustan-Julio-Claudian family

1:04:55.856 --> 1:04:59.336
and was used for the remains of
some of their slaves.

1:04:59.340 --> 1:05:01.850
And you can see that each
individual had a little niche;

1:05:01.849 --> 1:05:03.189
again, people were cremated.

1:05:03.190 --> 1:05:06.940
The cremated remains were
placed usually in an urn,

1:05:06.940 --> 1:05:08.950
that was placed inside one of
these niches,

1:05:08.949 --> 1:05:10.979
and then there would be a small
inscription,

1:05:10.980 --> 1:05:14.220
referring to the deceased.

1:05:14.219 --> 1:05:17.299
So this gives you a sense again
of those who could not afford

1:05:17.300 --> 1:05:19.560
individual tombs and how they
were buried.

1:05:19.559 --> 1:05:23.279
In the five or seven minutes
that remain,

1:05:23.280 --> 1:05:26.900
I'd like to switch gears
entirely and look at something

1:05:26.902 --> 1:05:30.482
very different,
as a prelude to what we'll be

1:05:30.476 --> 1:05:33.566
talking about next time,
because next time,

1:05:33.565 --> 1:05:35.705
next Tuesday,
we are going to return once

1:05:35.713 --> 1:05:37.973
again to innovative Roman
architecture;

1:05:37.969 --> 1:05:42.459
architecture made of concrete
and with a variety of

1:05:42.456 --> 1:05:44.786
interesting innovations.

1:05:44.789 --> 1:05:47.279
We'll do that next week,
as I said.

1:05:47.280 --> 1:05:50.900
And I want to give you an
introduction to that by turning

1:05:50.898 --> 1:05:54.198
to this one example from the
Augustan period that is

1:05:54.195 --> 1:05:57.745
noteworthy enough for us to say
something about it.

1:05:57.750 --> 1:06:03.150
What you're looking at here is
the plan of what was a spa

1:06:03.146 --> 1:06:06.806
essentially, in ancient Roman
times.

1:06:06.809 --> 1:06:09.919
It's located in Campania,
at a place called Baia,

1:06:09.918 --> 1:06:13.868
so in the vicinity of Pompeii
and Herculaneum and Oplontis and

1:06:13.869 --> 1:06:15.619
Boscotrecase and so on.

1:06:15.619 --> 1:06:18.959
We've already talked about the
fact that that was an area that

1:06:18.958 --> 1:06:22.138
was a mecca for the well-to-do,
the glitteratti from Rome who

1:06:22.141 --> 1:06:23.831
went down there for their
vacations.

1:06:23.829 --> 1:06:25.279
It was a resort area.

1:06:25.280 --> 1:06:28.430
Many of them had villas along
what is now the Amalfi Coast.

1:06:28.429 --> 1:06:31.389
Others had villas on the Island
of Capri.

1:06:31.389 --> 1:06:34.479
I can't remember if I told you
but Augustus and Tiberius,

1:06:34.480 --> 1:06:36.800
his successor,
owned twelve villas on the

1:06:36.797 --> 1:06:39.727
Island of Capri,
one of which we'll look at next

1:06:39.726 --> 1:06:40.076
time.

1:06:40.079 --> 1:06:43.879
And this was an area also where
there were sulfur springs and

1:06:43.882 --> 1:06:46.642
mineral baths,
and so the natural thing to do,

1:06:46.639 --> 1:06:49.079
for those who were coming here,
as a resort,

1:06:49.083 --> 1:06:52.413
was to create for them a place
that they could go to relax and

1:06:52.405 --> 1:06:55.615
enjoy the thermal springs and
the sulfur baths and so on and

1:06:55.617 --> 1:06:58.507
so fort,
and that was this place,

1:06:58.507 --> 1:07:02.497
this spa, at Baia,
which consisted of a bunch of

1:07:02.496 --> 1:07:07.006
thermal structures that were
terraced out over a hillside.

1:07:07.010 --> 1:07:10.270
You have to think of the
Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia

1:07:10.266 --> 1:07:12.336
at Palestrina,
turned into a spa.

1:07:12.340 --> 1:07:14.520
Because they treated
it--architecturally it was done

1:07:14.518 --> 1:07:15.628
in exactly the same way.

1:07:15.630 --> 1:07:17.770
They took a hillside,
they terraced that hillside,

1:07:17.768 --> 1:07:19.968
they poured concrete on that
hillside,

1:07:19.969 --> 1:07:24.329
creating a whole host of
interesting structures in which

1:07:24.329 --> 1:07:27.739
one could relax and get away
from it all.

1:07:27.739 --> 1:07:31.239
You see a plan of that spa here
and the way in which it was

1:07:31.239 --> 1:07:33.349
terraced, via concrete
construction,

1:07:33.351 --> 1:07:34.741
over this hillside.

1:07:34.739 --> 1:07:38.769
I am only going to show you one
thermal bath from it,

1:07:38.771 --> 1:07:42.031
and it's this one that we see
over here.

1:07:42.030 --> 1:07:43.820
It is the so-called
"Temple of Mercury"

1:07:43.820 --> 1:07:45.610
-- that's what the locals have
long called it.

1:07:45.610 --> 1:07:48.290
It is not a Temple of Mercury,
it is a thermal bath,

1:07:48.286 --> 1:07:51.436
but nonetheless we call it that
because it's been called that

1:07:51.436 --> 1:07:52.746
for such a long time.

1:07:52.750 --> 1:07:55.910
As you look at the plan of the
Temple of Mercury,

1:07:55.909 --> 1:07:58.079
you're going to say to
me--every one of you will say

1:07:58.083 --> 1:07:59.873
the same thing,
"What's the origin of

1:07:59.869 --> 1:08:00.339
this?"

1:08:00.340 --> 1:08:04.150
Clearly the design is based on
the frigidaria of

1:08:04.152 --> 1:08:06.692
Pompeii,
the frigidarium or the

1:08:06.686 --> 1:08:10.206
cold room of Pompeii,
this round structure with the

1:08:10.213 --> 1:08:14.773
radiating alcoves that we saw as
part of bath architecture very

1:08:14.773 --> 1:08:17.063
early on,
second century B.C.,

1:08:17.060 --> 1:08:18.590
and so on, in Pompeii.

1:08:18.590 --> 1:08:20.720
Same scheme used here.

1:08:20.720 --> 1:08:21.610
Not surprising.

1:08:21.609 --> 1:08:23.509
This is in Campania,
it's not far away.

1:08:23.510 --> 1:08:27.150
I can show you the Temple of
Mercury is extremely well

1:08:27.145 --> 1:08:27.965
preserved.

1:08:27.970 --> 1:08:30.960
We can see the dome of the
Temple of Mercury,

1:08:30.962 --> 1:08:33.212
made out of concrete
construction,

1:08:33.208 --> 1:08:34.228
from above.

1:08:34.229 --> 1:08:37.209
You can see the oculus
of the--

1:08:37.210 --> 1:08:40.140
just as those frigidaria
had oculi,

1:08:40.140 --> 1:08:45.320
this one does as well,
and you can see that extremely

1:08:45.323 --> 1:08:46.523
well here.

1:08:46.520 --> 1:08:49.880
So a concrete building,
with a concrete dome,

1:08:49.877 --> 1:08:51.937
used as part of this spa.

1:08:51.939 --> 1:08:57.609
We've traced this desire to
make round structures way back

1:08:57.608 --> 1:09:02.578
to the 600s B.C.,
the time of Quinto Fiorentino.

1:09:02.578 --> 1:09:06.428
I showed you this Etruscan
attempt at making a round

1:09:06.427 --> 1:09:08.517
structure,
with a dome,

1:09:08.524 --> 1:09:11.314
that was done,
in this case,

1:09:11.310 --> 1:09:14.340
in stone, and although it was a
valiant attempt,

1:09:14.340 --> 1:09:16.040
not all that successful.

1:09:16.038 --> 1:09:19.638
And we talked about the way in
which that eventually

1:09:19.640 --> 1:09:22.820
transformed into the Roman
ability to make the

1:09:22.819 --> 1:09:25.149
frigidaria at Pompeii.

1:09:25.149 --> 1:09:28.889
And here are two views of the
Temple of Mercury at Baia,

1:09:28.890 --> 1:09:30.250
as it looks today.

1:09:30.250 --> 1:09:33.150
Because of the oculus,
there is often rain water.

1:09:33.149 --> 1:09:34.969
The drain no longer functions.

1:09:34.970 --> 1:09:40.970
So there's often a lot of very
unappealing green water that

1:09:40.971 --> 1:09:46.251
accumulates in the base of the
Temple of Mercury.

1:09:46.250 --> 1:09:48.950
So the times that I've been
there, every time I think I've

1:09:48.954 --> 1:09:50.824
been there,
there's been enough water in

1:09:50.823 --> 1:09:53.443
there that I haven't been able
to actually get pictures of the

1:09:53.444 --> 1:09:55.504
alcoves,
which are covered by these

1:09:55.497 --> 1:09:59.227
inches and inches of water that
are usually collected inside the

1:09:59.226 --> 1:10:00.466
Temple of Mercury.

1:10:00.470 --> 1:10:02.400
But you get a good sense,
I think,

1:10:02.399 --> 1:10:04.599
of it here nonetheless,
that we're talking about a

1:10:04.604 --> 1:10:07.324
round domed structure,
with an oculus,

1:10:07.322 --> 1:10:10.522
with some windows,
with arcuated windows,

1:10:10.515 --> 1:10:13.445
windows with arcuations at the
top,

1:10:13.448 --> 1:10:16.738
in the uppermost part,
or toward the uppermost part of

1:10:16.743 --> 1:10:20.653
the dome,
to add additional light into

1:10:20.654 --> 1:10:22.014
the system.

1:10:22.010 --> 1:10:24.630
And you need to think of these,
by the way, as much more ornate

1:10:24.630 --> 1:10:26.110
in antiquity than they are
today.

1:10:26.109 --> 1:10:29.429
They would have been stuccoed
over, which you can see,

1:10:29.429 --> 1:10:32.059
and then probably decorated
with mosaic.

1:10:32.060 --> 1:10:34.660
So the wonderful effects of the
light coming in,

1:10:34.658 --> 1:10:37.338
hitting the mosaic,
and then there would've been a

1:10:37.344 --> 1:10:39.444
pool in the center,
just as there was in the

1:10:39.435 --> 1:10:42.595
frigidarium,
around which people could sit.

1:10:42.600 --> 1:10:46.900
It would've been a quite
spectacular space.

1:10:46.899 --> 1:10:50.339
And just a few more views,
to end with today.

1:10:50.340 --> 1:10:52.390
This one up here,
which of course is the

1:10:52.386 --> 1:10:55.476
frigidarium at Pompeii,
to show you where all of this

1:10:55.481 --> 1:10:56.061
begins.

1:10:56.060 --> 1:11:00.780
These two views are of the
Temple of Mercury at Baia.

1:11:00.779 --> 1:11:02.519
And this one,
of course, of the Pantheon,

1:11:02.521 --> 1:11:03.831
which is where we're headed.

1:11:03.828 --> 1:11:07.648
But I think these in particular
of the Temple of Mercury at Baia

1:11:07.652 --> 1:11:11.052
again give you a sense of the
way in which light not only

1:11:11.050 --> 1:11:14.610
flows into this system--
again, imagine it on mosaic

1:11:14.613 --> 1:11:17.683
ceiling and mosaic walls;
spectacular effects,

1:11:17.676 --> 1:11:20.586
the way it would have glittered
in the light.

1:11:20.590 --> 1:11:24.670
But look especially at the way
the shapes that are formed on

1:11:24.672 --> 1:11:28.552
the water that would have been
in the pool down below.

1:11:28.550 --> 1:11:32.840
It's exactly the same sort of
sense that you get when you walk

1:11:32.837 --> 1:11:36.697
into the Pantheon today,
which also makes circles on the

1:11:36.702 --> 1:11:38.532
floor of the pavement.

1:11:38.529 --> 1:11:41.249
So we're going to again return
to these kinds of issues next

1:11:41.247 --> 1:11:41.567
week.

1:11:41.569 --> 1:11:44.749
I just wanted you to be aware
of this intermediate step

1:11:44.753 --> 1:11:48.003
between the frigidaria of
Pompeii and some of the

1:11:47.997 --> 1:11:51.767
buildings that we're going to be
looking at in the next couple of

1:11:51.771 --> 1:11:52.481
weeks.

1:11:52.479 --> 1:11:53.829
Take care.

1:11:53.828 --> 1:11:55.418
Thank you, and Happy
Valentine's Day.

1:11:55.420 --> 1:12:02.000