WEBVTT 00:01.900 --> 00:02.980 Prof: Right. 00:02.983 --> 00:06.463 Well, today is the fourth and final of the contextual lectures 00:06.461 --> 00:08.801 introducing sixteenth-century England. 00:08.800 --> 00:11.800 We've looked at the social order, we've looked at 00:11.796 --> 00:14.656 households, institutions and relationships 00:14.662 --> 00:17.672 in local communities, and now I want to look at the 00:17.672 --> 00:20.692 networks of connection that tie the whole thing together, 00:20.690 --> 00:24.510 joining up the dots as it were, so it's a bit of historical 00:24.512 --> 00:27.682 geography or if you like a kind of guided tour of 00:27.676 --> 00:33.376 sixteenth-century England, a bit of historical tourism. 00:33.380 --> 00:38.900 Well, last time I stressed that local communities had a certain 00:38.902 --> 00:43.892 distinctive local peculiarity or local particularity, 00:43.890 --> 00:47.510 which was partly constructed out of their local customs and 00:47.513 --> 00:48.453 institutions. 00:48.450 --> 00:52.270 But it was also something that was influenced by the different 00:52.271 --> 00:56.031 ways that they were linked together into the larger world. 00:56.030 --> 01:00.350 The myriad of tiny local communities in this period was 01:00.350 --> 01:04.590 on the one hand a kind of complex of places which were 01:04.590 --> 01:08.190 distinctive entities in their own right, 01:08.188 --> 01:14.038 but on the other hand they were also integral parts socially and 01:14.039 --> 01:19.499 politically of larger spaces, and it's those larger spaces 01:19.501 --> 01:24.841 and the ties that bound them together that I'm most concerned 01:24.843 --> 01:26.093 with today. 01:26.090 --> 01:26.390 Okay. 01:26.394 --> 01:29.394 Well, amongst the most significant of those larger 01:29.385 --> 01:32.065 spaces are what contemporaries referred to as 01:32.070 --> 01:33.720 "countries". 01:33.720 --> 01:38.540 They used that word not in the modern sense of a territorial 01:38.535 --> 01:41.795 state but to mean a distinctive area, 01:41.800 --> 01:46.320 a landscape, a society, in some respects a 01:46.316 --> 01:48.076 local culture. 01:48.080 --> 01:52.040 These countries as they thought of them could be quite 01:52.038 --> 01:54.878 localized, for example on the Scottish 01:54.876 --> 01:57.576 border Teviotdale, or down in Gloucestershire the 01:57.584 --> 01:58.384 Vale of Berkeley. 01:58.379 --> 02:01.009 These were regarded as distinctive countries. 02:01.010 --> 02:02.920 Or they could use the term more broadly. 02:02.920 --> 02:05.960 People talked about the North Country, they talked about the 02:05.956 --> 02:10.186 West Country; areas with less distinct 02:10.188 --> 02:11.918 boundaries. 02:11.919 --> 02:15.479 When someone said in a letter, or in a political speech, 02:15.479 --> 02:19.379 or whatever, that he was referring to the 02:19.378 --> 02:25.518 opinion of his country he was referring to such a local area. 02:25.520 --> 02:29.890 Such countries are usually discussed by historians in terms 02:29.890 --> 02:33.280 of contrasting landscapes, physical geography, 02:33.282 --> 02:36.752 and to a certain extent economic activity. 02:36.750 --> 02:42.390 If you look at map one, the small relief map, 02:42.389 --> 02:48.169 you'll find that agrarian England was customarily divided 02:48.173 --> 02:50.403 up into, on the one hand, 02:50.395 --> 02:53.515 the highland zone of the north and the west-- 02:53.520 --> 02:56.450 you have all the high land represented there, 02:56.449 --> 02:58.169 the highland zone--and on the other hand, 02:58.169 --> 03:01.709 the lowland zone of the south and east. 03:01.710 --> 03:06.900 That's one way of perceiving these--the broad distinctions 03:06.903 --> 03:11.373 that were noticed at the time and subsequently. 03:11.370 --> 03:13.230 On the other hand, people sometimes make 03:13.229 --> 03:16.139 distinctions between what they called the 'fielden' areas, 03:16.139 --> 03:18.689 areas that practiced mixed agriculture, 03:18.688 --> 03:23.408 mostly lowland, and various pastoral zones 03:23.412 --> 03:27.792 practicing mainly animal husbandry, 03:27.788 --> 03:29.648 and they could be of various types. 03:29.650 --> 03:33.590 There were the open hill pastures of the highland. 03:33.590 --> 03:35.760 There were the woodland pastures. 03:35.758 --> 03:39.388 Much of the west of England was still pretty densely wooded, 03:39.389 --> 03:43.509 some parts of East Anglia as well, and they practiced a 03:43.508 --> 03:47.628 distinctive pastoral husbandry focusing on dairying. 03:47.628 --> 03:52.408 And then finally there were the pastoral practices of the 03:52.406 --> 03:55.246 fenlands, the areas of eastern England 03:55.252 --> 03:59.352 which were waterlogged in winter and where for the most part the 03:59.354 --> 04:02.224 inhabitants practiced pastoral husbandry. 04:02.218 --> 04:04.748 It's a very distinctive area in this period, 04:04.750 --> 04:08.240 flooded during the winter, the inhabitants regarded as 04:08.244 --> 04:11.874 having an extremely distinctive culture of their own. 04:11.870 --> 04:14.070 In fact, shreds of that continue. 04:14.068 --> 04:17.688 It's often said that people from the fens have webbed feet. 04:17.689 --> 04:19.129 > 04:19.129 --> 04:20.809 This is not true. 04:20.810 --> 04:24.690 I had a roommate from the fens when I was a student and he 04:24.694 --> 04:28.444 definitely didn't have webbed feet--though he was a good 04:28.442 --> 04:29.262 swimmer. 04:29.259 --> 04:33.739 Well, this kind of distinction in the physical geography can be 04:33.744 --> 04:37.944 extended to Scotland and Wales but there's less variety. 04:37.940 --> 04:41.840 Scotland--two thirds of Scotland is highland. 04:41.839 --> 04:46.439 Only the lowland zone between the Forth and the Clyde is 04:46.437 --> 04:50.027 really very good for agriculture, for arable 04:50.031 --> 04:53.711 agriculture, and areas around the coast. 04:53.709 --> 04:57.089 Wales again dominated by the central Cambrian massif, 04:57.088 --> 05:00.728 very difficult in this period to travel north to south in 05:00.725 --> 05:03.385 Wales unless you go around the coast. 05:03.389 --> 05:07.969 Most of the major routes traveled east to west because of 05:07.971 --> 05:09.281 the mountains. 05:09.279 --> 05:11.739 So it's less varied. 05:11.740 --> 05:12.060 Okay. 05:12.059 --> 05:14.929 If we turn to another kind of distinctiveness, 05:14.930 --> 05:18.180 there's that associated with the practice of various 05:18.184 --> 05:21.124 industrial activities in the countryside. 05:21.120 --> 05:25.210 That was a matter not so much of the physical geography - 05:25.214 --> 05:29.314 though that could influence their location--but dependent 05:29.307 --> 05:30.987 upon other factors. 05:30.990 --> 05:33.750 We think of this as the pre-industrial age, 05:33.750 --> 05:36.980 and yet there were already some areas which were rendered 05:36.980 --> 05:38.800 distinctive by, for example, 05:38.795 --> 05:42.475 the practice of mining and quarrying that clearly depended 05:42.476 --> 05:44.346 upon geographical factors. 05:44.350 --> 05:48.030 You get lead being mined in the hills of Derbyshire or in the 05:48.033 --> 05:52.143 hills of Somersetshire-- down here--iron in the Forest 05:52.139 --> 05:56.049 of Dean and down in Sussex, down here, and coal was 05:56.052 --> 05:59.772 produced especially around the River Tyne in the northeast and 05:59.773 --> 06:03.433 in a scattering of other places across the countryside and in 06:03.432 --> 06:04.472 South Wales. 06:04.470 --> 06:08.910 These industries were already established, and then there was 06:08.906 --> 06:10.086 metal working. 06:10.088 --> 06:12.688 There was a great deal of metal working around the town of 06:12.692 --> 06:15.432 Birmingham in the west Midlands which later grew into a great 06:15.432 --> 06:17.212 city, one of England's greatest 06:17.206 --> 06:19.576 centers in the industrial revolution for light 06:19.579 --> 06:20.369 engineering. 06:20.370 --> 06:23.720 That was based on its earlier metal working trade. 06:23.720 --> 06:26.800 When Henry VIII invaded Scotland in 1523, 06:26.795 --> 06:30.945 he placed bulk orders for arrowheads from the smiths of 06:30.946 --> 06:32.096 Birmingham. 06:32.100 --> 06:33.480 They supplied him. 06:33.480 --> 06:37.050 Sheffield was also very well known for its metal working; 06:37.050 --> 06:40.840 the knives of Sheffield were very famous as indeed to some 06:40.841 --> 06:42.441 extent they still are. 06:42.440 --> 06:46.060 Most people carried what they called a Sheffield whittle-- 06:46.060 --> 06:49.530 a whittle-- a little knife that you carried around with you to 06:49.531 --> 06:53.061 cut your food and it's from that name of course that we get the 06:53.062 --> 06:56.692 practice of whittling-- whittling wood--from a 06:56.692 --> 06:58.502 Sheffield whittle. 06:58.500 --> 06:59.890 Okay. 06:59.889 --> 07:04.619 Above all, there was on a much larger scale the manufacture of 07:04.617 --> 07:07.717 woolen cloth, usually manufactured in the 07:07.718 --> 07:11.438 putting-out system which I described to you; 07:11.439 --> 07:16.339 raw materials put out by capitalist clothiers to workers 07:16.338 --> 07:21.118 who spun the wool into yarn, wove the yarn into cloth in 07:21.120 --> 07:25.310 their own cottages scattered across the villages around a 07:25.312 --> 07:26.962 major urban center. 07:26.959 --> 07:30.839 And that kind of organization in the putting-out system of the 07:30.839 --> 07:33.639 cloth industry was very widespread indeed. 07:33.639 --> 07:36.729 Many of the villages of East Anglia were heavily involved. 07:36.730 --> 07:40.240 Parts of Kent, lots of places in the West 07:40.242 --> 07:42.502 Country, and a number of places 07:42.495 --> 07:45.415 scattered across the north were heavily involved in 07:45.420 --> 07:48.990 manufacturing England's most famous product at this time, 07:48.990 --> 07:54.000 high-quality woolen cloth. 07:54.000 --> 07:54.840 All right. 07:54.838 --> 07:58.948 All that's fine as a brief descriptive typology of 07:58.949 --> 08:03.479 different kinds of areas and their distinctiveness. 08:03.480 --> 08:07.920 Physical geography goes only so far in explaining all this 08:07.915 --> 08:08.845 variation. 08:08.850 --> 08:14.810 It's also to do with the--not only the physical attributes of 08:14.807 --> 08:18.577 the area but also invisible factors; 08:18.579 --> 08:23.229 the patterns of connection, the patterns of interaction, 08:23.228 --> 08:28.048 the flows of goods and people which gave areas distinctive 08:28.045 --> 08:29.225 qualities. 08:29.230 --> 08:33.060 So, for example, to indicate what I'm trying to 08:33.057 --> 08:36.177 express here, the fact that the coal industry 08:36.184 --> 08:39.434 was centered on Tyneside (up here in the northeast of the 08:39.429 --> 08:42.849 country) was not simply because coal was found there and was 08:42.847 --> 08:46.027 found near to the surface where it could be reached with 08:46.033 --> 08:48.123 relatively simple technology. 08:48.120 --> 08:51.420 It was also to do with the fact that it lay very close to the 08:51.418 --> 08:53.938 River Tyne, a major navigable river, 08:53.938 --> 08:56.228 so the coal, which was bulky and difficult 08:56.225 --> 08:59.265 to transport, could easily be put onto small 08:59.268 --> 09:02.618 boats called 'keels', brought down the river on 09:02.615 --> 09:04.795 to--and loaded onto collier ships-- 09:04.798 --> 09:08.518 which then transported it easily down the coast to the 09:08.523 --> 09:12.813 cities along the coast and above all to the city of London. 09:12.808 --> 09:16.548 London could never have grown as it did in this period if it 09:16.547 --> 09:20.597 hadn't had regular fuel supplies brought at a reasonable price by 09:20.601 --> 09:23.011 coastal routes from the northeast. 09:23.009 --> 09:26.589 That's why the northeast became the center of the coal industry 09:26.587 --> 09:29.757 whereas other areas which had coal deposits were not yet 09:29.761 --> 09:33.811 exploited; they were too inaccessible. 09:33.809 --> 09:35.979 Well, that's one example. 09:35.980 --> 09:40.230 One could think of others, but it's examining flows of 09:40.232 --> 09:44.652 that kind that's crucial to understanding how particular 09:44.647 --> 09:49.137 localities developed their special qualities and also the 09:49.142 --> 09:53.392 way in which they got articulated into larger national 09:53.394 --> 09:54.684 systems. 09:54.678 --> 09:58.898 So to understand all of that one needs to look at these 09:58.898 --> 10:03.738 connections and the flows which linked local societies together 10:03.741 --> 10:05.931 into the national whole. 10:05.928 --> 10:08.168 One could look--one can look--at those connections in 10:08.172 --> 10:08.692 many ways. 10:08.690 --> 10:12.180 There are the connections which have to do with the state and 10:12.183 --> 10:15.563 we'll look at them next week when I look at the early Tudor 10:15.561 --> 10:18.591 monarchy and the reassertion of royal authority. 10:18.590 --> 10:21.000 There were connections to do with the church and we look at 10:20.999 --> 10:22.909 them a lot in dealing with the Reformation, 10:22.908 --> 10:25.888 but today I want to focus principally on connections 10:25.890 --> 10:28.640 through markets and through flows of people, 10:28.639 --> 10:31.459 demographic flows across the countryside, 10:31.460 --> 10:35.870 and in particular looking at them through the pattern of the 10:35.873 --> 10:40.683 urban system, the towns which helped to 10:40.681 --> 10:47.761 organize and to some extent channel these flows. 10:47.759 --> 10:51.659 Well, for analytical purposes you can distinguish various 10:51.664 --> 10:53.274 levels of connection. 10:53.269 --> 10:56.829 There were local market areas based on a small market town 10:56.827 --> 11:00.197 linking together the activities of the villagers within 11:00.198 --> 11:01.758 particular countries. 11:01.759 --> 11:05.979 Secondly, there were regional and interregional patterns of 11:05.975 --> 11:08.245 trade, and finally there were trading 11:08.248 --> 11:11.268 systems of national or even international significance. 11:11.269 --> 11:15.069 Some--I'll touch on each of them in turn. 11:15.070 --> 11:21.360 Local market areas were based upon small market towns. 11:21.360 --> 11:26.310 Within a particular country the rural and the urban were not 11:26.306 --> 11:27.896 separate spheres. 11:27.899 --> 11:32.329 It's helpful to think of them as being bound together by 11:32.327 --> 11:35.707 connections to a particular market town. 11:35.710 --> 11:39.250 All towns needed the country's products of food and raw 11:39.251 --> 11:40.041 materials. 11:40.038 --> 11:44.308 The country depended upon the towns to provide a place to 11:44.306 --> 11:47.506 trade and also for specialist manufactures, 11:47.505 --> 11:50.625 specialist services of various kinds. 11:50.629 --> 11:55.059 So the essential unit to think of is the market town and its 11:55.063 --> 11:58.903 hinterland, and one can distinguish various kinds of 11:58.897 --> 12:00.097 market town. 12:00.100 --> 12:01.660 Some of them were really very tiny. 12:01.658 --> 12:06.068 The smallest ones were not very impressive as urban entities. 12:06.070 --> 12:07.970 They were just large villages. 12:07.970 --> 12:11.800 They've been described as villages with an overlay of 12:11.803 --> 12:14.463 urban activities, market villages. 12:14.460 --> 12:18.830 One person rather poetically has described these market towns 12:18.827 --> 12:21.447 as being "foci in time". 12:21.450 --> 12:23.720 They just came alive on market day. 12:23.720 --> 12:27.220 The rest of the time they're pretty much just like any other 12:27.216 --> 12:27.806 village. 12:27.808 --> 12:31.848 Well, those are the settlements that provided weekly markets and 12:31.845 --> 12:33.955 a range of specialist services. 12:33.960 --> 12:36.220 Most rural villages would have a smith, 12:36.220 --> 12:37.740 a carpenter, a wheelwright, 12:37.741 --> 12:41.201 but there were other crafts which needed a bigger market and 12:41.197 --> 12:44.357 so they tended to be located in the market towns, 12:44.360 --> 12:47.920 people like coopers who made barrels or joiners who made 12:47.921 --> 12:49.541 furniture and so forth. 12:49.538 --> 12:53.328 To give you a specific example, there's an area of the county 12:53.332 --> 12:55.612 of Suffolk called Babergh Hundred. 12:55.610 --> 12:56.600 There's the name. 12:56.600 --> 12:57.890 That's how it's spelt. 12:57.889 --> 13:01.109 It's a delightful area of the country. 13:01.110 --> 13:05.280 A recent survey by the Royal Commission on Historical 13:05.280 --> 13:09.770 Monuments found that in that area no less than 24% of the 13:09.772 --> 13:12.422 houses date back before 1700. 13:12.418 --> 13:16.128 It's got a remarkable level of survival of late medieval and 13:16.129 --> 13:19.399 early modern buildings, which makes it delightful. 13:19.399 --> 13:22.389 You've probably seen it many times in BBC shows. 13:22.389 --> 13:26.109 If you want an ideal English village, that's the kind of 13:26.114 --> 13:28.014 place you'd go to film it. 13:28.009 --> 13:31.279 Well, Babergh Hundred: in 1522, there was a survey 13:31.283 --> 13:34.763 done of able-bodied men which led them to listing the 13:34.755 --> 13:38.025 inhabitants and their trades and occupations. 13:38.029 --> 13:40.759 There were thirty-two settlements in the area. 13:40.759 --> 13:44.589 Twenty-seven of them had only between two and fourteen 13:44.586 --> 13:46.316 different occupations. 13:46.320 --> 13:49.210 Four of them had between eighteen and twenty-seven 13:49.212 --> 13:50.042 occupations. 13:50.039 --> 13:52.809 They were the market towns. 13:52.808 --> 13:57.178 And finally there was one place which had as many as forty-nine 13:57.182 --> 13:58.172 occupations. 13:58.168 --> 14:01.058 That was a big market town, the town of Sudbury, 14:01.062 --> 14:04.142 the name which will be familiar to you no doubt. 14:04.139 --> 14:08.839 There are many Sudburys in the United States. 14:08.840 --> 14:12.870 Well, all market towns, then, were essentially closely 14:12.865 --> 14:16.885 connected and part of the countryside they served, 14:16.889 --> 14:21.069 they gained their living from it, but they also served to bind 14:21.070 --> 14:25.390 those settlements into what you can think of as a kind of social 14:25.386 --> 14:29.016 area around which people move on a regular basis. 14:29.019 --> 14:32.489 Just to take an example of this, there was a small village 14:32.494 --> 14:34.144 called Kibworth Harcourt. 14:34.139 --> 14:37.619 It's in Leicestershire, around about there. 14:37.620 --> 14:43.030 A study of Kibworth Harcourt's been done which shows that 14:43.033 --> 14:49.033 Kibworth Harcourt lay within a day's walk of a variety of small 14:49.025 --> 14:50.665 market towns. 14:50.668 --> 14:54.178 So here we are in Kibworth Harcourt; 14:54.178 --> 14:59.508 people who had different things to sell on any given day of the 14:59.508 --> 15:04.838 week virtually could go out to a market town nearby and in turn 15:04.836 --> 15:10.156 people were coming in from other villages to those market towns 15:10.164 --> 15:12.834 on different market days. 15:12.830 --> 15:15.170 What you get is the interconnection of the whole 15:15.172 --> 15:16.022 area of course. 15:16.019 --> 15:18.889 All the villagers from these different communities are 15:18.893 --> 15:22.043 gradually intermingling in the marketplaces of these market 15:22.037 --> 15:22.577 towns. 15:22.580 --> 15:27.900 That's how a local society meshed together. 15:27.899 --> 15:29.359 Contemporaries were very aware of this. 15:29.360 --> 15:32.580 In the course of the Reformation when the attempt to 15:32.581 --> 15:35.551 Protestantize the country was at its height, 15:35.548 --> 15:40.098 a good deal of attention was paid for example to preaching in 15:40.101 --> 15:41.241 market towns. 15:41.240 --> 15:43.520 Preachers were appointed to preach in market towns. 15:43.519 --> 15:45.329 That was how you reached the people. 15:45.330 --> 15:49.020 That's how you penetrated an area. 15:49.019 --> 15:51.649 Well, in addition, some market towns had a 15:51.649 --> 15:55.139 stronger role, the bigger ones like Sudbury 15:55.139 --> 15:59.599 which could articulate patterns of interaction over a 15:59.595 --> 16:02.075 significantly larger area. 16:02.080 --> 16:06.390 One historical geographer has described these as what he calls 16:06.389 --> 16:10.489 "cardinal markets," really important ones linking 16:10.489 --> 16:12.679 countries into sub regions. 16:12.678 --> 16:16.818 A very good example is the town of Richmond in North Yorkshire 16:16.823 --> 16:19.273 which has been quite well studied. 16:19.269 --> 16:22.869 Richmond was placed between the hills of the Yorkshire Dales, 16:22.870 --> 16:26.390 beautiful high country, sheep country, 16:26.389 --> 16:29.849 wonderful place to go walking or hiking, 16:29.850 --> 16:32.300 and the Vale of York, the lowland Vale of York. 16:32.298 --> 16:35.748 It channeled the relationship between those two areas, 16:35.750 --> 16:40.290 the sheep and the dairy produce of the dales including the 16:40.289 --> 16:44.989 famous Wensleydale cheese which you may have encountered. 16:44.990 --> 16:47.210 It's available in some places in America; 16:47.210 --> 16:49.080 recommend it. 16:49.080 --> 16:53.770 A big wedge of Wensleydale on top of a slice of apple pie 16:53.772 --> 16:58.552 eaten together is definitely one of life's more fulfilling 16:58.548 --> 16:59.888 experiences. 16:59.889 --> 17:00.949 > 17:00.950 --> 17:02.160 I would recommend it. 17:02.155 --> 17:05.135 It's a sort of--it's a sort of--crumbly white cheese, 17:05.143 --> 17:05.663 tangy. 17:05.660 --> 17:08.870 The best Wensleydale is still made from sheep's milk, 17:08.865 --> 17:12.495 originally made by monks from the monasteries in that region 17:12.501 --> 17:13.921 but still produced. 17:13.920 --> 17:14.970 Anyway, > 17:14.970 --> 17:18.030 cheese, sheep, wool coming down to Richmond 17:18.029 --> 17:22.399 where they meet the grain and cloth and other products coming 17:22.402 --> 17:26.342 up from the Vale of York and that's the main center for 17:26.336 --> 17:27.426 exchange. 17:27.430 --> 17:31.550 In 1536, when the north rose against the Reformation in the 17:31.550 --> 17:34.540 rebellion known as the Pilgrimage of Grace, 17:34.535 --> 17:37.515 Richmond was one of its major centers. 17:37.519 --> 17:40.919 Proclamations of the rebellion took place at the market cross 17:40.924 --> 17:41.724 in Richmond. 17:41.720 --> 17:43.370 Again it makes perfect sense. 17:43.369 --> 17:48.059 This is how you reached people. 17:48.058 --> 17:52.908 Actually, speaking of Richmond, only if you'll forgive a small 17:52.914 --> 17:55.764 divergence, when people visit Britain they 17:55.755 --> 17:58.325 very often go to London, Oxford, Cambridge, 17:58.328 --> 18:03.128 maybe Canterbury Cathedral, and then skip up to Edinburgh 18:03.134 --> 18:04.514 or whatever. 18:04.509 --> 18:08.609 It's well worth taking the time to go to some of the provincial 18:08.605 --> 18:11.705 regions where you can see some lovely places. 18:11.710 --> 18:14.420 The north is a very good example and Richmond is a 18:14.421 --> 18:15.861 splendid place to visit. 18:15.858 --> 18:19.918 It's an almost perfect market town for the twelfth-century 18:19.923 --> 18:23.563 castle perched on a bluff above the River Swale, 18:23.558 --> 18:25.568 delightful streets, mostly seventeenth- and 18:25.574 --> 18:28.944 eighteenth-century, built in sort of yellowish 18:28.942 --> 18:32.202 sandstone, monastery ruins. 18:32.200 --> 18:34.870 It's got everything and people--tourists--don't visit 18:34.868 --> 18:36.408 places like this very often. 18:36.410 --> 18:37.990 It's well worth doing. 18:37.990 --> 18:41.370 If you happen to go to Richmond I would recommend near the 18:41.374 --> 18:44.824 marketplace there's an inn called the Black Lion which does 18:44.817 --> 18:47.547 excellent lunches > 18:47.548 --> 18:50.338 and, as you'd expect in that part of the country, 18:50.335 --> 18:53.755 the roast lamb is terrific but then they have modernized. 18:53.759 --> 18:58.659 They do now have vegetarian options and they have wonderful 18:58.657 --> 18:59.247 beer. 18:59.250 --> 19:00.730 > 19:00.730 --> 19:06.580 The Black Sheep Brewery is a small brewery in that area which 19:06.580 --> 19:12.140 is very well known and they produce Black Sheep Bitter and 19:12.140 --> 19:18.480 also a most unusual bottled beer which is called Riggwelter, 19:18.480 --> 19:21.170 which needs explaining. 19:21.170 --> 19:22.880 It's a dialect word. 19:22.880 --> 19:26.660 A riggwelter in the dialect of this particular area of the 19:26.660 --> 19:30.570 north of England is a sheep which has fallen on its back and 19:30.574 --> 19:32.104 can't get up again. 19:32.099 --> 19:33.099 > 19:33.099 --> 19:34.829 This happens with sheep. 19:34.828 --> 19:37.598 They trip, they roll on their backs and then they lie there 19:37.602 --> 19:39.852 waggling their feet, > 19:39.848 --> 19:41.748 and the shepherd has to come and turn them up again. 19:41.750 --> 19:45.700 Well, that is--in the dialect of the area a sheep like that is 19:45.698 --> 19:47.658 riggweltered; it's a riggwelter, 19:47.662 --> 19:49.922 and they call this bottled beer Riggwelter 19:49.921 --> 19:51.411 > 19:51.410 --> 19:54.650 because if you consume it in unwise quantities 19:54.647 --> 19:56.517 > 19:56.519 --> 19:58.859 it has exactly the same effect. 19:58.859 --> 20:01.069 > 20:01.068 --> 20:06.038 Anyway, I tell you this not to encourage you but to, 20:06.038 --> 20:09.788 you know--if you did happen to go to that part of England to 20:09.788 --> 20:12.648 warn you against the possible consequences. 20:12.650 --> 20:13.700 > 20:13.700 --> 20:14.120 Okay. 20:14.115 --> 20:19.115 Well, to get back to the point, so we have significant market 20:19.115 --> 20:23.445 towns and they connect villages into localities, 20:23.450 --> 20:30.080 localities into countries, countries into sub regions. 20:30.078 --> 20:33.688 And that role is revealed in their recorded patterns of 20:33.689 --> 20:35.159 population mobility. 20:35.160 --> 20:37.680 As you know, village populations were not 20:37.682 --> 20:39.072 rooted and immobile. 20:39.068 --> 20:42.858 People moved about finding work as servants, 20:42.858 --> 20:47.038 marrying, taking up a tenancy of land that was available and 20:47.038 --> 20:49.298 so forth, and to some extent you can 20:49.303 --> 20:52.783 trace the distances people moved from their place of birth in the 20:52.780 --> 20:54.140 course of their lives. 20:54.140 --> 20:55.860 One study has been done of Worcestershire, 20:55.858 --> 20:58.628 over here on the Welsh border, and that suggests that people 20:58.631 --> 21:01.451 were generally living within ten miles of the place they were 21:01.450 --> 21:03.500 born, so kind of moving around their 21:03.501 --> 21:05.431 country, and there are other similar 21:05.432 --> 21:05.902 studies. 21:05.900 --> 21:10.270 A very good one was done of Kent of the geography of 21:10.270 --> 21:13.360 marriage, and it found that half of the 21:13.358 --> 21:17.618 people in the study married people from their home parish, 21:17.618 --> 21:22.498 70% married people from under five miles, 21:22.500 --> 21:25.750 84% married people from under ten miles, 21:25.750 --> 21:30.100 and 95% married people from under fifteen miles from where 21:30.096 --> 21:33.096 they were born, and again it gives a sense of 21:33.098 --> 21:36.468 the area in which people were moving around and where they of 21:36.471 --> 21:38.271 course met marriage partners. 21:38.269 --> 21:39.369 Okay. 21:39.368 --> 21:43.798 Well, distances like that reflect the area of regular 21:43.801 --> 21:49.091 social interaction and movement shaped by local markets and the 21:49.086 --> 21:55.576 towns where they were located, which created social areas with 21:55.582 --> 22:01.932 their own distinctive identities and their own particular 22:01.926 --> 22:03.736 orientations. 22:03.740 --> 22:07.550 I've noticed since living in Connecticut that there's an 22:07.551 --> 22:10.811 invisible wall across Connecticut which seems to 22:10.808 --> 22:13.788 divide Red Sox fans from Yankees fans, 22:13.788 --> 22:16.048 which presumably has something to do with the kind of 22:16.046 --> 22:18.516 orientation of people to different parts of the state, 22:18.519 --> 22:21.329 towards New York or towards Boston so-- 22:21.328 --> 22:23.838 and it's an example of the kind of thing I'm talking about, 22:23.838 --> 22:26.048 the way in which people's connections, 22:26.048 --> 22:29.098 where they go shopping, where they go for business and 22:29.099 --> 22:31.919 so forth orient them in particular directions, 22:31.920 --> 22:35.580 and that's what created these countries in sixteenth-century 22:35.580 --> 22:36.450 England too. 22:36.450 --> 22:39.710 Okay. Let's move on. 22:39.710 --> 22:44.600 In addition, there were some longer distance 22:44.599 --> 22:45.509 flows. 22:45.509 --> 22:49.989 The key commodities that one finds in these interregional 22:49.993 --> 22:54.723 systems of connection and of interdependence were of several 22:54.719 --> 22:55.519 kinds. 22:55.519 --> 22:57.229 There were foodstuffs. 22:57.230 --> 23:00.490 Not every area produced enough food to feed its local 23:00.486 --> 23:01.296 population. 23:01.298 --> 23:06.108 You tend to get a flow of grain from the south and east towards 23:06.109 --> 23:07.739 the north and west. 23:07.740 --> 23:11.150 A lot of it went up the coast for example from East Anglia, 23:11.150 --> 23:15.230 and in reverse you get flows of animal products from the 23:15.234 --> 23:19.694 pastoral areas of the north down to the south heading usually 23:19.691 --> 23:21.401 towards the cities. 23:21.400 --> 23:25.010 Many cattle and sheep were driven in great herds having 23:25.007 --> 23:28.947 been assembled in the market towns of the north and the west 23:28.948 --> 23:31.588 and Wales, driven down to London in 23:31.592 --> 23:35.222 particular where they'd be fattened up in the villages 23:35.218 --> 23:39.388 around London by graziers before being sold to the butchers of 23:39.392 --> 23:40.352 the city. 23:40.349 --> 23:42.339 So you get flows of that kind. 23:42.339 --> 23:45.959 You get flows of raw materials. 23:45.960 --> 23:49.160 The wool which was produced in East Anglia or Lincolnshire or 23:49.164 --> 23:52.264 the north would find its way down to the woolen industry in 23:52.262 --> 23:53.922 the west and the southeast. 23:53.920 --> 23:56.830 And one gets other things too. 23:56.828 --> 24:03.018 The luxury products which were traded over long distances, 24:03.016 --> 24:08.656 things like wine and spices, fine-quality fabrics. 24:08.660 --> 24:12.400 They would tend to come in through London or one of the 24:12.397 --> 24:16.477 major ports like Bristol and then be disseminated across the 24:16.481 --> 24:17.591 countryside. 24:17.588 --> 24:21.848 Longer distance flows of foodstuffs, raw materials, 24:21.852 --> 24:24.672 luxury goods, and indeed some less 24:24.665 --> 24:27.645 significant manufactured goods. 24:27.650 --> 24:33.390 The knives of Sheffield were found everywhere in the country. 24:33.390 --> 24:36.940 If you visit London and are standing by the river at low 24:36.942 --> 24:39.522 tide, you might notice people on the 24:39.517 --> 24:43.417 mud banks by the side of the river putting mud into sieves 24:43.424 --> 24:44.664 and sieving it. 24:44.660 --> 24:46.660 They're known as mudlarks. 24:46.660 --> 24:50.470 They're amateur archeologists. 24:50.470 --> 24:55.160 What they're doing is finding stuff in the mud which fell out 24:55.156 --> 24:58.356 of people's pockets in London long ago. 24:58.358 --> 25:02.968 As you probably are aware, the taxi system of 25:02.969 --> 25:08.519 sixteenth-century London was--were little boats on the 25:08.521 --> 25:09.571 river. 25:09.568 --> 25:12.398 Watermen rowed people hither and thither and Shakespeare 25:12.402 --> 25:15.332 in Love is a good example of that kind of thing if you've 25:15.333 --> 25:16.313 seen that movie. 25:16.308 --> 25:20.148 Things fell out of people's pockets when they were on the 25:20.148 --> 25:22.958 river and they can be found in the mud. 25:22.960 --> 25:27.780 Anyway, one of the most common things the mudlarks find are 25:27.779 --> 25:29.359 Sheffield knives. 25:29.358 --> 25:33.478 People carried a knife all the time and they would fall in the 25:33.480 --> 25:37.330 river and they can be found and they end up in museums. 25:37.328 --> 25:41.058 Well, longer distance flows then. 25:41.058 --> 25:43.918 Any town could have a role in distributing goods over the 25:43.919 --> 25:47.349 longer distance, but some had a particularly 25:47.352 --> 25:52.462 important role and they were of greater than sub-regional 25:52.460 --> 25:53.920 significance. 25:53.920 --> 25:58.000 And the greatest of them are sometimes described as being 25:58.002 --> 26:01.762 provincial capitals, places which in the early 26:01.755 --> 26:07.065 sixteenth century would have a population over 5,000 or 6,000, 26:07.068 --> 26:11.518 which seems paltry to modern eyes but was quite significant 26:11.519 --> 26:15.339 at the time, and which exerted influence 26:15.338 --> 26:18.698 over a whole area of the country. 26:18.700 --> 26:23.410 To give a good example, York, effectively the capital 26:23.405 --> 26:25.755 of the north of England. 26:25.759 --> 26:31.849 York was a city of ancient origin and considerable 26:31.845 --> 26:33.455 importance. 26:33.460 --> 26:36.120 It was the great ecclesiastical center of the north. 26:36.118 --> 26:40.368 The Archbishop of York was based there in York Minster, 26:40.365 --> 26:42.405 the wonderful cathedral. 26:42.410 --> 26:45.270 It was the center of royal government for the north. 26:45.269 --> 26:50.239 The king's Council of the North sat at York in the King's Manor, 26:50.241 --> 26:54.351 and York was also a natural point of exchange for the 26:54.346 --> 26:57.026 largest county in the kingdom. 26:57.029 --> 27:01.379 If you look at your map of towns and counties, 27:01.384 --> 27:07.584 you'll see that Yorkshire--up here--by far the biggest county. 27:07.578 --> 27:14.808 Well, York dominated the trading networks of the entire 27:14.811 --> 27:15.751 area. 27:15.750 --> 27:19.450 It provided also all kinds of specialist services for the 27:19.446 --> 27:21.556 whole of the north of England. 27:21.558 --> 27:25.258 If your church needed new bells, York was the only place 27:25.257 --> 27:27.137 you could get a bell cast. 27:27.140 --> 27:31.490 If you wanted to buy a clock, you would probably need to go 27:31.490 --> 27:32.240 to York. 27:32.240 --> 27:33.930 Not many clocks were manufactured, 27:33.925 --> 27:36.785 it was a very specialist occupation, a tiny number of the 27:36.787 --> 27:37.807 greatest cities. 27:37.808 --> 27:39.958 If you wanted a book beautifully bound, 27:39.964 --> 27:41.274 you would go to York. 27:41.269 --> 27:44.379 York had people like bookbinders serving the 27:44.381 --> 27:46.191 cathedral and so forth. 27:46.190 --> 27:52.160 Its position on the River Ouse meant that it was also a town 27:52.155 --> 27:57.915 which controlled a major artery of long-distance trade. 27:57.920 --> 28:02.700 The River Ouse runs up from the city of Hull on the coast up 28:02.696 --> 28:07.636 into North Yorkshire and along the river would pass many goods 28:07.636 --> 28:12.006 being landed at Hull and coming up into the area, 28:12.009 --> 28:17.839 or coming down the river and then being shipped to national 28:17.843 --> 28:20.663 and international markets. 28:20.660 --> 28:24.860 Any of the really great cities of the time had that same kind 28:24.858 --> 28:25.558 of role. 28:25.558 --> 28:29.798 Norwich was in effect the capital of East Anglia and was 28:29.799 --> 28:32.729 the second largest city at the time. 28:32.730 --> 28:38.010 Bristol, in effect the capital of the West Country. 28:38.009 --> 28:41.959 Chester, very significant also to the north of Wales and 28:41.962 --> 28:46.062 controlling trade with Ireland, and so one could go on. 28:46.058 --> 28:50.628 Newcastle up in the northeast also very significant, 28:50.625 --> 28:55.635 strategically important, close to the Scottish border. 28:55.640 --> 28:59.050 Just as patterns of population mobility within particular 28:59.051 --> 29:02.771 localities indicate the local social areas within which people 29:02.769 --> 29:05.739 moved, so the patterns of migration to 29:05.740 --> 29:09.820 the really great cities tell us about their regional and 29:09.823 --> 29:12.053 interregional significance. 29:12.048 --> 29:13.398 For Norwich, for example, 29:13.404 --> 29:16.744 there are surviving lists of apprentices and where they came 29:16.737 --> 29:19.727 from, the young men who came in to learn a trade. 29:19.730 --> 29:22.420 They came from all over East Anglia, the whole region, 29:22.423 --> 29:24.103 and indeed from further afield. 29:24.098 --> 29:27.668 Norwich was important enough to pull people in from the 29:27.672 --> 29:31.512 Midlands, and the same sort of thing is true of other areas 29:31.508 --> 29:33.888 that can be studied in that way. 29:33.890 --> 29:38.590 In Bristol a similar study shows that the apprentices came 29:38.593 --> 29:43.053 from all over the west Midlands and they came from-- 29:43.048 --> 29:47.828 let me just check the figure--thirty-seven different 29:47.832 --> 29:52.712 towns and villages of which twenty-five were actually 29:52.708 --> 29:57.958 located on the River Severn which runs up like that. 29:57.960 --> 29:59.760 It's pretty obvious what was going on here. 29:59.759 --> 30:03.629 These places were particularly connected to Bristol through the 30:03.632 --> 30:07.322 river trade and people were coming down river to start their 30:07.316 --> 30:09.686 careers in Bristol as apprentices. 30:09.690 --> 30:13.680 Bristol also drew apprentices from Wales and from the 30:13.682 --> 30:15.452 southwest of England. 30:15.450 --> 30:19.960 Okay. 30:19.960 --> 30:20.330 Okay. 30:20.329 --> 30:24.779 Cities such as Bristol or York or Norwich were already places 30:24.781 --> 30:26.861 of national significance. 30:26.858 --> 30:31.678 They focused entire regions and bound them together into the 30:31.681 --> 30:36.341 national unit and they channeled inter-regional trade, 30:36.338 --> 30:39.698 but the final element of the kind of articulation that I'm 30:39.698 --> 30:42.468 talking about, of course, is at the ultimate 30:42.472 --> 30:45.532 national level and that's provided above all by the 30:45.529 --> 30:49.449 capital city, London. 30:49.450 --> 30:54.340 As you know from your reading, the English urban system in 30:54.344 --> 30:57.354 this period was rather polarized. 30:57.348 --> 31:02.048 There was only one city with more than 15,000 population in 31:02.054 --> 31:06.114 the early sixteenth century and that was London. 31:06.108 --> 31:10.528 Nowhere else could come near rivaling London. 31:10.528 --> 31:14.228 In the 1520s, London already had a population 31:14.232 --> 31:18.692 of 55,000, which made it something like four times the 31:18.692 --> 31:22.062 size of Norwich, and it was growing. 31:22.058 --> 31:27.228 Indeed, it was to grow to a population of something like 31:27.230 --> 31:32.400 200,000 by the last decades of the sixteenth century. 31:32.400 --> 31:36.170 London was the biggest marketing center for food and 31:36.174 --> 31:37.364 raw materials. 31:37.358 --> 31:41.718 London--supplying London meant farmers all over eastern and 31:41.721 --> 31:46.231 southern England were sending their goods towards the capital 31:46.232 --> 31:46.912 city. 31:46.910 --> 31:48.890 There was a lot of road traffic. 31:48.890 --> 31:53.040 There was also river traffic down the River Thames, 31:53.038 --> 31:58.178 coastal traffic bringing goods to where they could be landed to 31:58.184 --> 31:59.684 supply London. 31:59.680 --> 32:02.900 London was also the biggest supplier of goods that were 32:02.901 --> 32:04.991 desired elsewhere in the kingdom. 32:04.990 --> 32:09.240 It was the biggest center of manufacturing of all kinds of 32:09.237 --> 32:13.857 things which would be sent out to cities and towns elsewhere in 32:13.856 --> 32:15.046 the kingdom. 32:15.048 --> 32:18.828 It was the biggest supplier also of all kinds of specialist 32:18.833 --> 32:22.293 services which weren't readily available elsewhere. 32:22.288 --> 32:24.358 London had a lot of lawyers for example. 32:24.358 --> 32:28.068 If you wanted legal business done, London was the place to 32:28.065 --> 32:28.385 go. 32:28.390 --> 32:32.180 London was where the royal courts met, hearing the most 32:32.182 --> 32:33.872 important court cases. 32:33.868 --> 32:37.558 London was the place which had a lot of proper 32:37.564 --> 32:42.494 university-trained physicians if you had medical problems. 32:42.490 --> 32:46.990 It was very rare to find a physician like that out in a 32:46.987 --> 32:48.067 small town. 32:48.068 --> 32:50.618 So it was the place to go for all kinds of things. 32:50.618 --> 32:55.038 An almost ridiculous example: if you were a great nobleman or 32:55.044 --> 32:59.324 a gentleman and you wanted to have a grand renaissance tomb 32:59.319 --> 33:04.039 erected in your parish church in preparation for your death. 33:04.039 --> 33:05.269 And lots of them did this. 33:05.269 --> 33:07.659 They even wrote the inscriptions themselves while 33:07.659 --> 33:10.649 they were still alive saying what wonderful guys they'd been, 33:10.645 --> 33:12.035 > 33:12.038 --> 33:14.968 and if you wanted something like that and you could afford 33:14.974 --> 33:17.194 it, London was the place that you got it. 33:17.190 --> 33:19.660 That's where the stone masons were who would do something like 33:19.655 --> 33:19.935 that. 33:19.940 --> 33:23.380 They were manufactured in London, to order, 33:23.380 --> 33:26.910 and then shipped out in pieces to wherever they were to be 33:26.913 --> 33:30.513 erected and then they would be erected by local masons in a 33:30.510 --> 33:33.550 parish church somewhere else in the kingdom, 33:33.548 --> 33:37.328 just--it's true but it's a silly example in a way, 33:37.329 --> 33:40.719 but it makes the point. 33:40.720 --> 33:41.840 Right. 33:41.838 --> 33:49.088 Above all, London was the great center of international trade. 33:49.088 --> 33:52.578 The dominance of London was based upon the fact that it was 33:52.575 --> 33:55.755 so close to the crossing across to the Netherlands. 33:55.759 --> 33:59.039 You can have a short voyage across the North Sea to the 33:59.040 --> 34:02.870 cities of the Netherlands and above all the city of Antwerp, 34:02.868 --> 34:07.298 which should be marked on the bottom corner of your map but 34:07.303 --> 34:12.123 seems to have gotten lost in the Xerox machine in some cases. 34:12.119 --> 34:17.099 London was the major market for English cloth which was exported 34:17.101 --> 34:22.321 abroad and it was the principal place where imports were landed. 34:22.320 --> 34:27.130 In fact, woolen cloth alone made up two thirds of English 34:27.134 --> 34:30.664 exports in the early sixteenth century. 34:30.659 --> 34:34.239 Two thirds of English exports were woolen cloth, 34:34.244 --> 34:38.824 and at least half of that cloth went to the Continent through 34:38.820 --> 34:39.660 London. 34:39.659 --> 34:44.119 It was gathered in London from all over the north and the west 34:44.119 --> 34:48.219 of England and from Wales and exported in fleets of ships 34:48.215 --> 34:52.525 organized by a company called the Merchant Adventurers. 34:52.530 --> 34:56.260 In return, all kinds of goods were brought back especially 34:56.257 --> 34:58.937 from the Netherlands: luxury textiles, 34:58.940 --> 35:02.370 fine-quality linen, silk, miscellaneous 35:02.373 --> 35:06.623 manufactures which were not made in England, 35:06.619 --> 35:07.979 pins for example. 35:07.980 --> 35:09.720 They didn't manufacture pins in England. 35:09.719 --> 35:11.779 They came from Holland. 35:11.780 --> 35:14.830 Starch--they didn't manufacture starch; 35:14.829 --> 35:16.339 that came from the Netherlands too. 35:16.340 --> 35:19.600 Paper--there were no paper manufacturers in England. 35:19.599 --> 35:21.769 The book trade, based in London of course, 35:21.768 --> 35:26.298 depended upon imports of paper from the Netherlands and then 35:26.298 --> 35:29.138 there were all sorts of groceries, 35:29.139 --> 35:32.989 olive oil, fruit, spices, sugar, 35:32.989 --> 35:33.859 wine. 35:33.860 --> 35:38.190 A great deal of this came via the Netherlands. 35:38.190 --> 35:41.270 The Netherlands was the great trading area of northern Europe 35:41.273 --> 35:43.443 with its cities, notably Antwerp, 35:43.442 --> 35:46.872 and they connected the trade of Scandinavia, 35:46.869 --> 35:50.959 the Baltic in the north, to trade down the Atlantic 35:50.960 --> 35:53.660 coast and to the Mediterranean. 35:53.659 --> 35:57.299 And also the river routes of Europe which culminated in the 35:57.302 --> 36:00.572 Netherlands, like the Rhine, all brought in goods. 36:00.570 --> 36:05.860 The Netherlands was the center and England was connected to 36:05.858 --> 36:08.958 world trade via the Netherlands. 36:08.960 --> 36:10.450 I keep mentioning Antwerp. 36:10.449 --> 36:13.609 Antwerp was the center of all of this and its importance was 36:13.608 --> 36:14.838 very well recognized. 36:14.840 --> 36:17.880 It was with Antwerp that the English traded above all. 36:17.880 --> 36:23.460 It's no accident that when Sir Thomas More in 1517 wrote his 36:23.461 --> 36:26.631 book, Utopia, he sets it in 36:26.632 --> 36:30.862 Antwerp where he presents himself on an embassy to 36:30.855 --> 36:33.895 Antwerp, which actually took place, 36:33.900 --> 36:38.230 talking to the sailor Raphael Hythloday who tells him the 36:38.231 --> 36:43.031 story of the wonderful land of Utopia which he's located in his 36:43.025 --> 36:44.955 voyages to the west. 36:44.960 --> 36:47.230 Other things came from the Netherlands too; 36:47.230 --> 36:49.560 ideas. 36:49.559 --> 36:54.299 It was one of the major centers for the smuggling of early 36:54.302 --> 36:58.632 Protestant books into England from the 1520s onwards, 36:58.628 --> 36:59.958 for example. 36:59.960 --> 37:06.220 So London's dominant position was reflected in the fact that 37:06.222 --> 37:10.682 it had a truly national migration field. 37:10.679 --> 37:16.069 A study's been done of 1,000 new freemen of the city in 1551 37:16.074 --> 37:20.924 to 1553, young men completing their apprenticeship and 37:20.922 --> 37:23.942 becoming freemen of the city. 37:23.940 --> 37:27.590 Only a fifth of them had been born in London or the 37:27.594 --> 37:29.574 metropolitan area itself. 37:29.570 --> 37:33.290 A quarter of them came from the southeast and East Anglia, 37:33.289 --> 37:35.449 a quarter of them came from the Midlands, 37:35.449 --> 37:38.099 a quarter of them came from the north, 37:38.099 --> 37:40.119 and then there were a scattering of others from 37:40.117 --> 37:43.257 different parts of the kingdom, relatively few from the 37:43.260 --> 37:44.050 southwest. 37:44.050 --> 37:46.680 Probably the importance of Bristol meant that young men 37:46.679 --> 37:49.359 from the southwest went there rather than to London, 37:49.360 --> 37:58.010 but London's catchment area was truly national. 37:58.010 --> 38:01.750 Well, this description and analysis of marketing structures 38:01.750 --> 38:05.550 and the way they're articulated perhaps gives a sense of the 38:05.554 --> 38:09.494 integrated nature of a system of exchange already in the early 38:09.487 --> 38:13.917 sixteenth century, and so it was. 38:13.920 --> 38:18.530 It's not difficult to imagine a merchant sitting in his counting 38:18.530 --> 38:23.070 house in Bristol perhaps eating some salt fish which would have 38:23.067 --> 38:26.357 been caught off the coast of North Wales. 38:26.360 --> 38:29.780 It would have been packed into barrels which were made with 38:29.784 --> 38:33.154 barrel stays which probably were imported from Ireland via 38:33.150 --> 38:33.860 Chester. 38:33.860 --> 38:37.990 It would be salted with salt which was produced in the county 38:37.992 --> 38:39.442 of Cheshire nearby. 38:39.440 --> 38:43.600 If he's accompanying it with a little wine, that would have 38:43.601 --> 38:47.551 come from southwestern France and was probably landed in 38:47.547 --> 38:48.407 Bristol. 38:48.409 --> 38:50.839 If he was drinking that out of a pewter goblet, 38:50.840 --> 38:54.760 the pewter would have been made with lead from the Mendip Hills 38:54.755 --> 38:58.545 and tin from Cornwall probably actually produced by craftsmen 38:58.545 --> 39:00.435 working in Bristol itself. 39:00.440 --> 39:04.160 And maybe he's wearing a nice gown to keep the drafts off 39:04.161 --> 39:07.951 which would be fine-quality worsted cloth from Norwich. 39:07.949 --> 39:10.969 And if he's got a fine linen shirt because he's very well 39:10.967 --> 39:13.067 off, it would be Netherlandish linen. 39:13.070 --> 39:16.130 That was the best; the cheap stuff came from 39:16.130 --> 39:17.610 England and Lincolnshire. 39:17.610 --> 39:23.340 And if he'd starched his collar, the starch would have 39:23.335 --> 39:26.465 come from Antwerp probably. 39:26.469 --> 39:27.869 Let's have him cut his fish up. 39:27.869 --> 39:29.349 He uses a Sheffield knife. 39:29.349 --> 39:31.339 > 39:31.340 --> 39:33.440 Well, it's easy to imagine that. 39:33.440 --> 39:39.120 That--it mattered that those connections existed and they did 39:39.117 --> 39:42.037 exist, but we also finally just have 39:42.043 --> 39:46.623 to appreciate the limits of that kind of sophisticated commercial 39:46.621 --> 39:47.981 interconnection. 39:47.980 --> 39:52.360 Remember what I've said before: this was still primarily a 39:52.362 --> 39:56.212 rural world in which people lived within relatively 39:56.208 --> 40:00.668 contained areas and focused mostly on a little bit of local 40:00.668 --> 40:04.588 exchange and producing their own subsistence. 40:04.590 --> 40:09.570 So most people most of the time had only limited connections to 40:09.574 --> 40:13.194 these larger flows, to these larger commercial 40:13.193 --> 40:14.243 networks. 40:14.239 --> 40:17.219 The people who were really involved with them were 40:17.217 --> 40:20.617 distinctive groups in society: townspeople of course, 40:20.619 --> 40:23.959 especially the inhabitants of the greater cities; 40:23.960 --> 40:27.890 to a lesser extent also the inhabitants of those areas like 40:27.893 --> 40:31.763 the industrial areas which were producing goods for longer 40:31.760 --> 40:35.690 distance trade; the big commercial farmers who 40:35.690 --> 40:41.060 were involved in longer distance marketing of grain or cattle, 40:41.059 --> 40:45.899 and a variety of middlemen who conducted that trade. 40:45.900 --> 40:49.720 And finally deeply involved in all of this were the social 40:49.717 --> 40:50.317 elites. 40:50.320 --> 40:52.740 They were the people who consumed the luxuries. 40:52.739 --> 40:55.829 They were the people who went down to London to attend the 40:55.833 --> 40:57.573 royal court from time to time. 40:57.570 --> 41:03.880 They were the people who had truly national social networks 41:03.880 --> 41:08.670 with their equals as members of the elite. 41:08.670 --> 41:12.010 But the point is that the intensity of the integration 41:12.012 --> 41:12.962 varied a lot. 41:12.960 --> 41:16.130 It varied socially; it varied geographically. 41:16.130 --> 41:19.320 Some areas were probably pretty densely connected and 41:19.324 --> 41:22.154 commercialized, the southeast in particular. 41:22.150 --> 41:25.380 It has more towns, it's more heavily populated, 41:25.380 --> 41:28.470 it has a better road system, and so forth. 41:28.469 --> 41:32.809 Other areas were less closely interconnected. 41:32.809 --> 41:36.889 Some of the longer distance connections I've described were 41:36.891 --> 41:40.971 flowing across areas where people's lives were in fact much 41:40.974 --> 41:43.864 more contained on a day-to-day basis. 41:43.860 --> 41:47.350 When historians try to conceptualize the whole thing 41:47.347 --> 41:50.757 they have to try to express both the reality of the 41:50.764 --> 41:54.254 interconnections and their importance but also their 41:54.251 --> 41:57.681 limits, the continuing importance of 41:57.675 --> 42:00.315 localism within your country. 42:00.320 --> 42:05.750 People talk about an elaborate mosaic of interlocking local 42:05.746 --> 42:06.866 societies. 42:06.869 --> 42:11.029 They talk about what was still a highly territorialized 42:11.034 --> 42:14.434 society, although a national society also. 42:14.429 --> 42:18.759 They talk about an amalgam of different local societies at 42:18.755 --> 42:23.455 different stages of development all influencing each other, 42:23.460 --> 42:33.480 and yet often a world in which old ways coexisted with the new. 42:33.480 --> 42:37.160 Well, both dimensions of the picture have validity. 42:37.159 --> 42:41.349 Commercial relations have a vital place, and yet many local 42:41.346 --> 42:45.026 societies and economies were still to a great degree 42:45.027 --> 42:47.407 autonomous or semiautonomous. 42:47.409 --> 42:51.879 All in all, it could be described as not yet a fully 42:51.882 --> 42:57.232 integrated commercial society but a traditional agrarian world 42:57.233 --> 43:00.483 with a limited commercial sector. 43:00.480 --> 43:04.810 Within that commercial sector the predominant flows tended to 43:04.813 --> 43:09.513 be from the north and the west towards the south and the east, 43:09.510 --> 43:13.480 but to imagine it as being simply a dynamic advanced 43:13.476 --> 43:18.066 southeastern core and a rather backward northern and western 43:18.068 --> 43:22.968 periphery doesn't do justice to the more distant provinces. 43:22.969 --> 43:27.569 It's better, I think, to think in terms of 43:27.565 --> 43:33.945 certain core activities which are to be found all over the 43:33.954 --> 43:40.574 kingdom though they tend to be somewhat more concentrated in 43:40.567 --> 43:43.367 the south and east. 43:43.369 --> 43:51.509 But those outposts and those connections really mattered. 43:51.510 --> 43:57.140 They exercised a degree of leverage in local economies, 43:57.137 --> 44:01.617 on local cultures, and on local politics. 44:01.619 --> 44:06.479 So we have a set of local societies, local economies, 44:06.481 --> 44:11.811 even local cultures with important elements of linkage. 44:11.809 --> 44:14.299 It's those links, those connections, 44:14.300 --> 44:18.630 that get activated and get elaborated by some of the really 44:18.628 --> 44:21.838 significant developments of this period, 44:21.840 --> 44:24.950 the commercial developments, of course, 44:24.949 --> 44:28.469 most obviously perhaps, but it's also through those 44:28.467 --> 44:32.757 same links and connections that people in distant areas of the 44:32.760 --> 44:36.980 kingdom became involved in some of the other major changes of 44:36.983 --> 44:39.723 the period, the so-called educational 44:39.722 --> 44:42.542 revolution, the growth of literacy, 44:42.543 --> 44:46.613 religious change, political change. 44:46.610 --> 44:51.030 What I've been talking about really is essentially a 44:51.034 --> 44:56.594 framework of communication which is central to economic life, 44:56.590 --> 45:03.640 to cultural life, to the political dynamism of 45:03.641 --> 45:05.681 the period. 45:05.679 --> 45:10.649 And finally the national society as a whole was one which 45:10.653 --> 45:14.033 was created not only by those ties, 45:14.030 --> 45:17.330 vital as they were, but also by other forces, 45:17.329 --> 45:22.339 by political forces and by religious forces, 45:22.340 --> 45:26.760 and it's those that I'm going to turn to next week when we 45:26.762 --> 45:31.112 come at last to look at the activities of the early Tudor 45:31.108 --> 45:35.838 kings and to what was going on in the church on the eve of the 45:35.842 --> 45:37.242 Reformation. 45:37.239 --> 45:40.719 So context done, hopefully it will help you to 45:40.717 --> 45:45.197 understand the dynamics of change which we turn to next. 45:45.199 --> 45:49.999