WEBVTT 00:02.433 --> 00:03.203 PAUL FREEDMAN: Today, we're going to talk 00:03.200 --> 00:06.670 about Ireland and England, predominantly England, not 00:06.667 --> 00:10.967 because Ireland isn't important, but because we know 00:10.967 --> 00:12.767 less about Ireland. 00:12.767 --> 00:17.127 The reason we know relatively more about England in its 00:17.133 --> 00:27.503 post-Roman period, that is to say after 420, is because of 00:27.500 --> 00:34.400 the historian Bede writing in the early eighth century, a 00:34.400 --> 00:42.200 monk at Jarrow, which was part of a twin monastery in 00:42.200 --> 00:47.600 Northumbria, which you see on your map on the northeastern 00:47.600 --> 00:50.900 part of England before you get to what's now Scotland. 00:53.600 --> 00:56.070 Bede wrote, among other things, A History of the 00:56.067 --> 01:02.067 English Church and People, which is full of miracles and 01:02.067 --> 01:06.327 very, very pro-Christian, as much as Gregory of Tours. 01:06.333 --> 01:12.203 But it is a much more easy-to-follow narrative, and 01:12.200 --> 01:14.430 a narrative with a certain kind of point. 01:14.433 --> 01:17.303 It's about the conversion of England and the establishment 01:17.300 --> 01:19.400 of the Church. 01:19.400 --> 01:22.070 The other advantage for England over Ireland in terms 01:22.067 --> 01:25.067 of evidence is archaeology. 01:25.067 --> 01:31.897 A lot more has been done with excavating sites in England. 01:31.900 --> 01:35.370 Now by England, we mean literally England, the part 01:35.367 --> 01:39.367 that is not Wales, not Scotland, not Ireland, the 01:39.367 --> 01:40.767 part of the British Isles. 01:40.767 --> 01:45.827 The ensemble, essentially the two islands, are referred to 01:45.833 --> 01:47.703 as the British Isles. 01:47.700 --> 01:51.570 Britain is England, Scotland and Wales. 01:51.567 --> 01:53.997 Ireland is Ireland. 01:54.000 --> 01:58.370 The Britons, however, B-R-I-T-O-N-S, are the 01:58.367 --> 02:01.867 collective term for the Celtic population. 02:01.867 --> 02:07.627 Celtic is both a linguistic group and a somewhat vague 02:07.633 --> 02:08.733 ethnic term. 02:08.733 --> 02:12.633 It means the people who were there in the British Isles 02:12.633 --> 02:18.703 before the Romans came, and who were there afterwards 02:18.700 --> 02:24.230 fighting invaders from Europe. 02:24.233 --> 02:27.673 These invaders, who come in the 440's, are known as the 02:27.667 --> 02:29.127 Anglo-Saxons. 02:29.133 --> 02:37.733 Bede tells us it's the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. 02:37.733 --> 02:42.773 The Angles give their name to England, Angle-land. 02:42.767 --> 02:45.867 The Jutes we know nothing about. 02:45.867 --> 02:51.427 So a certain kind of medievalist will go on about 02:51.433 --> 02:55.703 founding a journal of Jute studies and inviting 02:55.700 --> 02:57.870 contributors to something that we really have 02:57.867 --> 02:59.327 absolutely no idea of. 02:59.333 --> 03:03.773 It would be in that league of smallest, thinnest volumes, at 03:03.767 --> 03:07.127 least in terms of three dimensional books. 03:07.133 --> 03:11.033 The Saxons come from-- there's still a very large part of 03:11.033 --> 03:15.273 Germany called "Saxony." What the nature of these peoples 03:15.267 --> 03:17.367 are, how they were differentiated among 03:17.367 --> 03:23.827 themselves, is a source of a lot of real, or at least looks 03:23.833 --> 03:27.503 real, scholarship, as opposed to studying the Jutes, but we 03:27.500 --> 03:29.200 don't have to go into that. 03:29.200 --> 03:33.230 If you need to get the cast of characters: Celts, 03:33.233 --> 03:35.803 Anglo-Saxons. 03:35.800 --> 03:40.670 And the Anglo-Saxons conquer much of the island, more or 03:40.667 --> 03:44.327 less what would become England, but not all. 03:44.333 --> 03:46.633 They do not conquer Scotland. 03:46.633 --> 03:48.833 They do not conquer Wales. 03:48.833 --> 03:50.603 And they don't really conquer Cornwall. 03:50.600 --> 03:55.200 So the western part of Britain remains Celtic. 03:55.200 --> 03:59.300 And to this day, Wales and Scotland consider themselves 03:59.300 --> 04:00.530 different from England. 04:00.533 --> 04:05.673 You can get into a lot of trouble by calling that area 04:05.667 --> 04:07.567 "England" with the people there. 04:07.567 --> 04:11.827 And particularly in Scotland, there's a possibility that 04:11.833 --> 04:17.833 they may separate from the United Kingdom at some point. 04:17.833 --> 04:20.973 Ireland was never occupied by the Romans. 04:20.967 --> 04:28.767 Ireland was Celtic, was in contact with the Roman Empire, 04:28.767 --> 04:31.827 but was not part of it. 04:31.833 --> 04:33.703 This makes some difference-- 04:33.700 --> 04:35.600 and we'll talk about it when we come to talk about 04:35.600 --> 04:36.470 conversion-- 04:36.467 --> 04:38.727 but it doesn't make as much difference as it sounds. 04:38.733 --> 04:43.003 Because the thing about England, or Britain, is that 04:43.000 --> 04:47.030 the Roman impress there would be almost wiped out once the 04:47.033 --> 04:48.873 Romans withdrew. 04:48.867 --> 04:52.967 And so, in contrast to what we saw with Gregory of Tours and 04:52.967 --> 04:59.897 Merovingian Gaul, Merovingian Frankish kingdom, the Roman 04:59.900 --> 05:05.370 influence in Britain is almost wiped out. 05:05.367 --> 05:09.867 Recall what we saw as persistence of Roman practices 05:09.867 --> 05:17.697 in the Merovingian kingdom: bishops, cities, the Latin 05:17.700 --> 05:27.100 language, tax records, written legal codes. 05:27.100 --> 05:29.500 That is not to say that the Merovingians weren't, as I 05:29.500 --> 05:33.970 said before, to be described by technical terms like 05:33.967 --> 05:38.027 "thugs." Or that this was a sleek, 05:38.033 --> 05:40.673 well-functioning kingdom. 05:40.667 --> 05:45.197 You landed at the airport and got the train immediately, and 05:45.200 --> 05:48.930 everything was sleek and nice like Amsterdam or someplace 05:48.933 --> 05:51.803 like that, as opposed to Kennedy. 05:51.800 --> 06:01.200 But that the Roman inheritance was visible and influential. 06:01.200 --> 06:08.830 In Britain, when the Roman troops withdrew to fight the 06:08.833 --> 06:14.773 invaders in Gaul, this ended Roman society in Britain. 06:14.767 --> 06:16.727 And the reason for this is partly that Britain was a 06:16.733 --> 06:19.903 frontier viewed from the point of view of the Mediterranean, 06:19.900 --> 06:21.700 the center of gravity of the Roman Empire. 06:24.333 --> 06:32.073 The frontier symbolized most dramatically by walls, the 06:32.067 --> 06:36.097 most famous of which is Hadrian's Wall, a wall that 06:36.100 --> 06:38.370 separated out the barbarians. 06:38.367 --> 06:41.467 But since you didn't have a river like the Danube or the 06:41.467 --> 06:44.897 Rhine, there seemed to be no natural frontier. 06:44.900 --> 06:52.700 Remnants of Hadrian's Wall are the largest souvenir of the 06:52.700 --> 06:56.670 Roman era, a wall to keep out the barbarians from the north 06:56.667 --> 06:57.767 because in fact, the Romans didn't 06:57.767 --> 06:59.797 conquer the entire island. 06:59.800 --> 07:02.030 They conquered the parts they thought were worthwhile. 07:02.033 --> 07:05.333 And they did think it was worthwhile, frontier or not. 07:05.333 --> 07:08.533 We know that the Romans built villas-- 07:08.533 --> 07:11.433 They might be a little cold, these somewhat open air 07:11.433 --> 07:14.903 Mediterranean - planned things, but mosaic 07:14.900 --> 07:17.100 courtyards-- 07:17.100 --> 07:23.230 drank a lot of wine, much of it imported; built cities, 07:23.233 --> 07:28.673 walls, other fortifications; cultivated land. 07:28.667 --> 07:33.197 So it's not as if there wasn't a serious Roman province of 07:33.200 --> 07:38.070 Britain from its conquest in the late first century until 07:38.067 --> 07:42.397 its abandonment in the early fifth century. 07:42.400 --> 07:48.430 But here, the invaders tended to obliterate much of what had 07:48.433 --> 07:50.933 been there in Roman times. 07:50.933 --> 07:55.273 And the Celtic population, who had been Romanized, at least 07:55.267 --> 07:58.867 at the elite levels, the Celtic population didn't 07:58.867 --> 08:03.067 really save very much from the Roman Empire. 08:03.067 --> 08:07.067 The Celts might remain Christian, whereas the 08:07.067 --> 08:08.327 invaders were pagan. 08:12.833 --> 08:15.633 But the Celts tended not to have cities, or 08:15.633 --> 08:16.903 at least large centers. 08:19.600 --> 08:24.130 And they tended not to have or retain Roman forms of 08:24.133 --> 08:25.033 government. 08:25.033 --> 08:29.533 The one kind of, if not literally interesting, at 08:29.533 --> 08:33.303 least weird aspect of Celtic-Roman resistance is the 08:33.300 --> 08:35.670 figure of King Arthur. 08:35.667 --> 08:37.127 I'm going to bring him up now, and then I'm 08:37.133 --> 08:38.533 going to drop him. 08:38.533 --> 08:42.433 King Arthur belongs properly to the continuation of this 08:42.433 --> 08:51.633 course because his legendary status starts really in the 08:51.633 --> 08:54.573 world of romance, of French romance and then of 08:54.567 --> 08:57.627 international romance, chivalric literature. 08:57.633 --> 09:01.833 By romance, we mean not only love stories, but novels of 09:01.833 --> 09:05.633 chivalry, of knights, of battles. 09:05.633 --> 09:13.703 He is a figure who is 99.9% legend, whatever the remainder 09:13.700 --> 09:16.170 of that, 0.1% real. 09:16.167 --> 09:20.027 Insofar as he is real, he may be identified with Celtic 09:20.033 --> 09:24.403 resistance to the Anglo-Saxons invaders, Celtic-Roman 09:24.400 --> 09:27.200 resistance in the late fifth, early sixth centuries. 09:30.200 --> 09:36.230 But the proportion of art to history in this is, if not 09:36.233 --> 09:40.573 99.9%, at least very, very substantial. 09:40.567 --> 09:46.127 So the original setting of the Arthurian stories is that of 09:46.133 --> 09:48.803 the resistance to the Anglo-Saxon invaders. 09:51.400 --> 09:58.230 The Arthurian romances do have a kind of Celtic beginning. 09:58.233 --> 09:58.373 Well, not a "kind of" - they do have a Celtic beginning and 09:58.367 --> 10:01.867 then they are appropriated by people in the thing romance 10:01.867 --> 10:04.927 language tradition French, first of all. 10:08.700 --> 10:14.330 So as Wickham says on page 151, "Nowhere else in the 10:14.333 --> 10:18.303 Roman Empire was the collapse of culture, economy and 10:18.300 --> 10:22.230 urbanization so complete." He uses that wonderful phrase 10:22.233 --> 10:31.303 again, "radical economic simplification," i.e., there's 10:31.300 --> 10:32.030 no more plumbing. 10:32.033 --> 10:37.133 There's no more what we would consider to be affluent, 10:37.133 --> 10:38.903 civilized society. 10:38.900 --> 10:41.630 The ceramics don't come from Africa anymore. 10:41.633 --> 10:44.233 The wine doesn't come from France anymore. 10:44.233 --> 10:49.033 People are reduced to a kind of subsistence. 10:49.033 --> 10:51.503 Or at least most people, because as we'll see, some of 10:51.500 --> 10:54.870 these kings actually are able to get some 10:54.867 --> 10:56.467 luxury goods from abroad. 10:59.400 --> 11:02.630 If it were just a story of barbarization, it would be 11:02.633 --> 11:07.473 less interesting than in fact the peculiar nature of England 11:07.467 --> 11:12.297 in this period, which goes from being a contested 11:12.300 --> 11:16.230 territory between the Germanic invaders and the Celtic 11:16.233 --> 11:22.203 population to a kingdom slowly converted, in the course of 11:22.200 --> 11:26.930 the seventh century, to Christianity from paganism, to 11:26.933 --> 11:31.473 the leading center of culture in Europe. 11:31.467 --> 11:37.567 Bede, who lived from 673 to 735, was the most cultivated 11:37.567 --> 11:42.367 scholar in Europe of the early eighth century. 11:42.367 --> 11:44.997 And the most cultivated scholar in Europe of the late 11:45.000 --> 11:53.030 eighth century was also from England, Alcuin, counselor and 11:53.033 --> 11:54.533 adviser to Charlemagne. 11:57.367 --> 11:59.367 How do you go from being a-- 12:04.367 --> 12:06.327 well, I don't like to use the word "primitive," but 12:06.333 --> 12:10.873 certainly barbarian enough area, to having the largest 12:10.867 --> 12:16.397 libraries, the most cultivated scholars? 12:16.400 --> 12:20.630 Now it is true, as I think I've said before, that any 12:20.633 --> 12:25.003 time you can say that such and such a person was the smartest 12:25.000 --> 12:29.630 person in Europe has got to be a fairly bad time. 12:29.633 --> 12:30.073 Right? 12:30.067 --> 12:33.127 In the 19th century, you have your choice from all sorts of 12:33.133 --> 12:38.833 scientific, literary, other kinds of intellectual experts. 12:38.833 --> 12:42.773 Who would even dare to say? 12:42.767 --> 12:48.297 But we know that Boethius and Cassiodorus are the smartest 12:48.300 --> 12:51.170 guys in Europe in the sixth century because they have 12:51.167 --> 12:53.667 access to stuff that almost no one else does. 12:53.667 --> 12:56.897 Because they're writing about classical authors that almost 12:56.900 --> 13:00.170 no one else has in their libraries. 13:00.167 --> 13:02.767 We know that Isidore of Seville is probably the 13:02.767 --> 13:06.427 smartest guy of the early seventh century in Visigothic 13:06.433 --> 13:09.403 Spain because we have his works. 13:09.400 --> 13:11.430 We have an idea of what he's read. 13:11.433 --> 13:12.933 We know his sources. 13:12.933 --> 13:16.473 And again, he's got the biggest library. 13:16.467 --> 13:22.967 "Biggest library" may mean 100 books, but 100 books in 700 AD 13:22.967 --> 13:25.327 is a serious collection of knowledge. 13:25.333 --> 13:27.703 Now, this is not easy knowledge. 13:27.700 --> 13:30.730 This is not as if everything were-- 13:35.400 --> 13:37.300 well, I don't want to say Wikipedia either-- 13:40.300 --> 13:43.830 if everything were like Wikipedia five years ago, 13:43.833 --> 13:46.473 elementary and often wrong. 13:46.467 --> 13:51.027 These are very different kinds of works from what might 13:51.033 --> 13:51.703 interest us. 13:51.700 --> 13:55.170 Certainly a lot of biblical stuff, but also, for example, 13:55.167 --> 13:58.197 a lot of computing of time. 13:58.200 --> 14:01.400 Bede would be remembered for The History of the English 14:01.400 --> 14:05.930 Church and People, but also for a lot of his works on 14:05.933 --> 14:08.573 figuring out time. 14:08.567 --> 14:12.197 He is credited, although not uniquely credited, but is an 14:12.200 --> 14:14.230 important person in the development 14:14.233 --> 14:18.133 of the BC-AD scheme. 14:18.133 --> 14:20.973 Believe it or not, people are not born into the world 14:20.967 --> 14:23.827 calculating according to BC-AD. 14:23.833 --> 14:26.403 Lots of people calculate according to other systems. 14:26.400 --> 14:28.000 How did they come up with this? 14:28.000 --> 14:33.600 And moreover, how do they then fit the calendar into it? 14:33.600 --> 14:38.270 How do you keep time when you don't have electric or battery 14:38.267 --> 14:39.467 operated clocks? 14:39.467 --> 14:42.427 How do you know what the seasonal changes are? 14:45.000 --> 14:48.070 But in fact, the most troublesome problem, which had 14:48.067 --> 14:51.397 been particularly controversial to the 14:51.400 --> 14:56.370 conversion of England in the generation before Bede in the 14:56.367 --> 14:59.127 early seventh and mid-seventh century, was the 14:59.133 --> 15:02.203 calculation of Easter. 15:02.200 --> 15:04.070 Easter is a real problem. 15:04.067 --> 15:06.397 Now naturally, it's not a problem if 15:06.400 --> 15:08.500 someone else tells you. 15:08.500 --> 15:14.430 If in 1970, you open up a little pocket book calendar, 15:14.433 --> 15:19.633 and it says, "OK, Easter is this day," you trust them. 15:19.633 --> 15:25.733 Or now, if you have some feature on your iPhone that 15:25.733 --> 15:29.233 gives you Easter for the next 3,000 years in case you want 15:29.233 --> 15:37.473 to know when Easter is in 3500 AD, no problem. 15:37.467 --> 15:41.427 But if you're out there in Northumbria, or anywhere for 15:41.433 --> 15:44.403 that matter, in a monastery somewhere where it's really 15:44.400 --> 15:47.600 crucial to celebrate it on the right day. 15:47.600 --> 15:50.830 Remember what I said about dogma and religious 15:50.833 --> 15:52.173 observation? 15:52.167 --> 15:55.327 God doesn't want you to say something like, "Dude, I don't 15:55.333 --> 15:57.003 really know when Easter is, but I think I'm going to 15:57.000 --> 16:00.770 celebrate it now." You can't do that. 16:00.767 --> 16:03.967 You can't just decide, "I know it's sort of in the spring. 16:03.967 --> 16:06.927 Nobody around here for miles and miles and miles knows how 16:06.933 --> 16:08.103 to calculate it. 16:08.100 --> 16:12.930 So what the heck, we'll do it on a Tuesday because I'm busy 16:12.933 --> 16:15.733 on what I think is Easter Sunday." That's not the way 16:15.733 --> 16:19.073 monasticism works, and we'll talk about that next week. 16:19.067 --> 16:21.327 The schedule is really, really important, but it's also 16:21.333 --> 16:22.573 difficult to figure out. 16:22.567 --> 16:25.197 And people disagree about it. 16:25.200 --> 16:29.000 To this day, the Eastern Orthodox churches celebrate a 16:29.000 --> 16:33.370 different date for Easter than the Western because they 16:33.367 --> 16:35.427 operate according to a different calendar. 16:35.433 --> 16:40.503 All right, well, so I'm not saying that this is the kind 16:40.500 --> 16:42.600 of knowledge that you ought to drop everything else to 16:42.600 --> 16:46.370 pursue, but it is a kind of knowledge that requires a sort 16:46.367 --> 16:49.727 of observation that in fact, we do not have. 16:49.733 --> 16:52.733 Most of us, unless we're astronomy majors, have no idea 16:52.733 --> 16:55.333 what the sky looks like at night. 16:55.333 --> 16:58.633 A) because we can't see it because of artificial light, 16:58.633 --> 17:02.733 and B) because we're not very curious. 17:02.733 --> 17:09.933 We cannot track animals, most of us, and those of you can, 17:09.933 --> 17:12.573 I'm interested in your knowledge. 17:12.567 --> 17:16.197 Most of us haven't the faintest idea how things grow 17:16.200 --> 17:19.470 except because we've been to the Yale farm, and "Oh my 17:19.467 --> 17:24.397 gosh, look at this stuff." That's part of the reason for 17:24.400 --> 17:27.470 it because we are not very close to nature. 17:30.133 --> 17:33.873 I think that environmental concerns notwithstanding, most 17:33.867 --> 17:37.297 of us have a huge investment in not being 17:37.300 --> 17:39.800 too close to nature. 17:39.800 --> 17:43.800 But the observation of phenomena is something that is 17:43.800 --> 17:50.030 much superior in so-called indigenous, primitive, 17:50.033 --> 17:52.933 traditional or historical society. 17:57.100 --> 18:01.870 So the story of England and Ireland centers on conversion. 18:01.867 --> 18:07.597 And the reason this is so is because conversion represents 18:07.600 --> 18:12.530 a change in orientation, a change in orientation towards 18:12.533 --> 18:14.673 a larger world. 18:14.667 --> 18:18.297 Instead of a tribal and fragmented identity-- 18:21.000 --> 18:24.370 I'm not making a statement about the truth or non-truth 18:24.367 --> 18:27.897 of Christianity but about the sense of belonging to a larger 18:27.900 --> 18:33.500 world whose purposes encompass not only your group, but a 18:33.500 --> 18:36.970 larger group of people out there. 18:36.967 --> 18:41.967 And I think we can get a feeling for this from a famous 18:41.967 --> 18:45.567 passage of Bede's Ecclesiastical History, 18:45.567 --> 18:48.267 written in 731. 18:48.267 --> 18:52.097 And he is describing events of about a century earlier, when 18:52.100 --> 18:57.070 King Edwin of Northumbria summoned a council to decide 18:57.067 --> 19:01.627 whether or not to accept the Christian God. 19:01.633 --> 19:06.573 And the chief of the pagan priests speaks in favor of 19:06.567 --> 19:07.897 embracing Christianity. 19:07.900 --> 19:10.830 Even though you would think that he would be the defender 19:10.833 --> 19:14.773 of the old faith, he in fact speaks to this assembly, 19:14.767 --> 19:20.997 according to Bede, in favor of Christianity on the grounds 19:21.000 --> 19:23.930 that it tells us what went before us and what 19:23.933 --> 19:25.203 will come after us. 19:27.833 --> 19:30.133 And the passage goes like this, "And one of the King's 19:30.133 --> 19:35.273 chief men presently said, 'Thus seems it to me, oh King. 19:35.267 --> 19:38.727 The present life of man on earth, against that time which 19:38.733 --> 19:44.433 is unknown to us, is as if you were sitting at a feast with 19:44.433 --> 19:47.573 your chief men and your thanes"-- 19:47.567 --> 19:48.897 your nobles-- 19:48.900 --> 19:49.900 "in winter time."-- 19:49.900 --> 19:51.170 T-H-A-N-E-S.-- 19:53.133 --> 19:57.833 "The fire burns, and the hall is warm. 19:57.833 --> 20:03.373 And outside, it rains and snows and storms. There comes 20:03.367 --> 20:07.927 a sparrow and swiftly flies through the house." The 20:07.933 --> 20:11.833 insulation is not great in these halls, right? 20:11.833 --> 20:16.233 "'It comes through one door, and it goes out another. 20:16.233 --> 20:21.603 Lo, in the time in which he is within, he is not touched by 20:21.600 --> 20:24.100 the winter storm. 20:24.100 --> 20:28.600 But that time is the flash of an eye and the least of times. 20:28.600 --> 20:33.430 And he soon passes from winter out to winter again. 20:33.433 --> 20:38.273 So is the life of man revealed for a brief space, but what 20:38.267 --> 20:43.327 went before, and what follows after, we do not now. 20:43.333 --> 20:46.233 Therefore, if this teaching can reveal any more certain 20:46.233 --> 20:51.203 knowledge, it seems only right we should follow it." 20:51.200 --> 20:55.870 Now this is not why people necessarily converted because 20:55.867 --> 20:58.527 not everybody's really bothered by that. 20:58.533 --> 21:01.833 Most people figure, "Wow, I'm in the hall. 21:01.833 --> 21:02.603 It's warm. 21:02.600 --> 21:03.500 It's great. 21:03.500 --> 21:05.470 I'm having such a good time. 21:05.467 --> 21:08.397 And when I have to leave, brief though it will be, I'll 21:08.400 --> 21:14.570 deal with that." But it does explain some of the appeal of 21:14.567 --> 21:20.967 Christianity and why the invaders who were quote 21:20.967 --> 21:23.767 "pagan" converted. 21:23.767 --> 21:26.867 And indeed why people tend to convert to world religions 21:26.867 --> 21:30.367 like Christianity and Islam to this day. 21:30.367 --> 21:35.027 A local religion, which I'm calling "tribal" only because 21:35.033 --> 21:39.803 by that I mean confined to a people whose identity is 21:39.800 --> 21:41.800 caught up in their religion. 21:41.800 --> 21:45.600 A tribal people or a tribal religion has trouble surviving 21:45.600 --> 21:53.570 extensive contact with other people, because its uniqueness 21:53.567 --> 21:55.767 is threatened by the realization that there's a 21:55.767 --> 21:58.397 huge world out there of lots of other people. 21:58.400 --> 22:01.030 And when you start interacting with them, that is when you're 22:01.033 --> 22:08.233 no longer isolated, you will tend to seek an explanation 22:08.233 --> 22:10.873 for things that is grander than just, these 22:10.867 --> 22:12.467 gods protect my spear. 22:12.467 --> 22:14.367 These god protects my hearth. 22:14.367 --> 22:17.497 This god protects against accidents in childbirth. 22:20.700 --> 22:23.330 There are exceptions. 22:23.333 --> 22:25.533 Judaism is one of the most obvious. 22:25.533 --> 22:30.373 Here is a religion of a small group of people that survives 22:30.367 --> 22:33.197 over the centuries. 22:33.200 --> 22:36.600 But it is not exactly a tribal religion in the sense that 22:36.600 --> 22:39.700 it's monotheistic and historical 22:39.700 --> 22:41.270 sense is very strong. 22:41.267 --> 22:44.567 And this is what the priest means, or at least this is 22:44.567 --> 22:47.827 what I mean in interpreting the priest's words as reported 22:47.833 --> 22:54.373 by Bede, by "historical sense." A sense that God rules 22:54.367 --> 22:56.827 of the world even if I'm not in it. 22:56.833 --> 23:00.573 That there is something to come, not necessarily that 23:00.567 --> 23:03.267 there is an afterlife, although that obviously is 23:03.267 --> 23:05.597 part of the teachings of Christianity, but that there 23:05.600 --> 23:09.930 is a purpose to life. 23:09.933 --> 23:15.933 So conversion, the conversions of Ireland 23:15.933 --> 23:19.233 and England are different. 23:19.233 --> 23:24.403 The process of converting England begins in 597 with a 23:24.400 --> 23:25.800 missionary known-- 23:25.800 --> 23:27.800 unfortunately whose name is Augustine. 23:27.800 --> 23:31.030 This is Augustine of Canterbury, not Augustine of 23:31.033 --> 23:33.373 Hippo, The Confessions Augustine. 23:33.367 --> 23:41.267 He is sent by the Roman pope, Gregory I, Gregory the Great. 23:41.267 --> 23:47.197 Bede tells us that he was motivated to do this-- this is 23:47.200 --> 23:49.000 a very strange thing to do. 23:49.000 --> 23:50.630 There had not been missionaries 23:50.633 --> 23:53.533 sent by the pope before-- 23:53.533 --> 23:57.873 that he was motivated to do this by seeing British boys 23:57.867 --> 24:00.867 for sale in the slave market in Rome. 24:00.867 --> 24:04.367 And asking who they were, he was told that they were 24:04.367 --> 24:09.167 Angles, Angles as in Anglo-Saxon, A-N-G-L-E-S. And 24:09.167 --> 24:15.397 he is reputed to have said, "We should make them angels, 24:15.400 --> 24:25.970 not Angles." Angeli, non angli or angels not Angles. 24:29.267 --> 24:37.467 Whatever the story, Augustine arrived around 597 at an 24:37.467 --> 24:44.227 island that had some remnants of Celtic Christianity, but is 24:44.233 --> 24:47.873 basically pagan and barbarian. 24:50.733 --> 24:54.103 He landed in Kent in the southeast corner of the island 24:54.100 --> 24:55.800 closest to the continent. 24:55.800 --> 25:00.630 And on this map, what I'd like you to know particularly are 25:00.633 --> 25:04.603 Kent, with Canterbury as its capital in the southeast; 25:04.600 --> 25:08.330 Wessex in the west, which I think I've helpfully 25:08.333 --> 25:12.433 underlined; Mercia, towards the center; Northumbria, 25:12.433 --> 25:17.273 umbrella, northeast. The most 25:17.267 --> 25:18.897 important kingdoms in England-- 25:18.900 --> 25:21.270 and Wickham has emphasized how fragmented 25:21.267 --> 25:22.567 this territory was-- 25:22.567 --> 25:24.967 the most important kingdoms would be, at different times, 25:24.967 --> 25:28.397 Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex. 25:28.400 --> 25:31.770 But the first place to convert is Kent. 25:31.767 --> 25:33.497 It faces the continent. 25:33.500 --> 25:36.370 The pagan ruler of Kent had actually married a Christian 25:36.367 --> 25:39.227 princess from Merovingian Gaul. 25:39.233 --> 25:43.033 And Augustine established the first bishopric in Kent at 25:43.033 --> 25:47.373 Canterbury, which would be henceforth the major 25:47.367 --> 25:50.367 ecclesiastical center of Britain, its archbishopric. 25:53.867 --> 25:56.967 Bede tells us about this, but he also tells us a lot more 25:56.967 --> 26:00.527 about Northumbria, which is where he lived. 26:00.533 --> 26:03.933 And here you can see the off-again, on-again pace of 26:03.933 --> 26:05.203 conversion. 26:06.767 --> 26:09.727 The pious King Edwin, who had that council that we just 26:09.733 --> 26:14.103 described, converted his people after a vision. 26:14.100 --> 26:18.400 But after his death in 633, his successor went back to the 26:18.400 --> 26:23.030 old, traditional religion, renouncing Christianity. 26:23.033 --> 26:26.673 And then, the successor to that king, a man named Oswald, 26:26.667 --> 26:27.997 reestablished Christianity. 26:30.600 --> 26:32.930 But he was killed in battle by the pagan King 26:32.933 --> 26:38.773 of Mercia in 642. 26:38.767 --> 26:45.327 Only in 660's, 670's is England pretty definitively 26:45.333 --> 26:49.473 converted to Christianity. 26:49.467 --> 26:56.867 We can see this kind of transition in two of the most 26:56.867 --> 26:59.697 famous sources of information about this 26:59.700 --> 27:01.770 world, the poem Beowulf-- 27:01.767 --> 27:03.667 how many people have read this? 27:03.667 --> 27:06.227 Yeah, everybody's read this at one time another. 27:06.233 --> 27:12.103 Beowulf does have some little Christian themes, and there is 27:12.100 --> 27:17.530 some debate as to what extent the poem is to be understood 27:17.533 --> 27:23.333 in Christian terms. But in its atmosphere, its rituals-- 27:23.333 --> 27:26.733 the burial in the ship, the burning of the body, the 27:26.733 --> 27:30.373 devotion not only to war, but to feasting and 27:30.367 --> 27:33.467 to gold, ring giving-- 27:33.467 --> 27:34.797 it evokes-- 27:34.800 --> 27:36.070 not merely evokes-- 27:36.067 --> 27:44.097 it is a description of a warrior society in which 27:44.100 --> 27:47.330 although it is written in Old English, remember that it 27:47.333 --> 27:50.403 actually takes place in Denmark. 27:50.400 --> 27:54.870 This is a North Sea world in which the communications 27:54.867 --> 27:58.327 patterns are such that you could write an English poem 27:58.333 --> 28:04.103 about someone who goes over to the mainland for adventure. 28:06.867 --> 28:11.697 The other source is one of the great archaeological triumphs 28:11.700 --> 28:16.730 of the last hundred years, the so-called Sutton Hoo treasure, 28:16.733 --> 28:19.473 which is in the British Museum. 28:19.467 --> 28:24.867 In East Anglia, close to the water actually, close to the 28:24.867 --> 28:30.267 sea, a burial ship was found in 1939. 28:30.267 --> 28:39.597 Probably the king buried here was Raedwald, king of East 28:39.600 --> 28:49.070 Anglia who died in 627. 28:49.067 --> 28:51.827 Now it's a pagan burial because of 28:51.833 --> 28:53.333 all the grave goods. 28:53.333 --> 28:57.933 All the stuff is in there, or so it would seem. 28:57.933 --> 29:01.473 But it's hard to tell-- just as in Beowulf, is it pagan, is 29:01.467 --> 29:02.197 it Christian?-- 29:02.200 --> 29:06.400 it's hard to tell about this burial scene because he's got 29:06.400 --> 29:12.200 a lot of stuff from what might be called foreign gifts or 29:12.200 --> 29:13.730 maybe plunder. 29:13.733 --> 29:17.433 Foreign gifts: he's got two Byzantine silver spoons. 29:17.433 --> 29:22.503 So two silver spoons made in Constantinople or thereabouts. 29:25.033 --> 29:28.403 He's got gold coins. 29:28.400 --> 29:32.030 They are mostly from the Merovingian kingdom, and 29:32.033 --> 29:33.903 they're different. 29:33.900 --> 29:36.370 They're all different. 29:36.367 --> 29:38.567 This is not an economic thing. 29:38.567 --> 29:40.067 This is a treasure thing. 29:40.067 --> 29:43.097 The difference between economy and treasure is that treasure 29:43.100 --> 29:47.570 is just for hoarding and economy is fluid and 29:47.567 --> 29:48.967 transactional. 29:48.967 --> 29:51.827 The hoarding, of course, we see in Beowulf, most obviously 29:51.833 --> 29:53.433 with the dragon. 29:53.433 --> 29:55.873 The dragon is not accumulating the treasure in order to 29:55.867 --> 30:04.027 safeguard his retirement or trade up in caves. 30:04.033 --> 30:06.303 He just sleeps on this treasure. 30:06.300 --> 30:08.670 And the point of that is, of course, that people accumulate 30:08.667 --> 30:13.897 treasure for non-economic reasons, for reasons that have 30:13.900 --> 30:17.070 to do with their own satisfaction 30:17.067 --> 30:20.967 or their own anxieties. 30:20.967 --> 30:27.867 And the utility of treasure is generally overestimated. 30:27.867 --> 30:30.197 Nevertheless of course, at the same time this is a world in 30:30.200 --> 30:38.830 which gold, treasure accumulation is what men do. 30:38.833 --> 30:40.333 So what else is at Sutton Hoo? 30:40.333 --> 30:47.073 A wonderful helmet, unique because these things tend to 30:47.067 --> 30:48.067 disintegrate. 30:48.067 --> 30:57.167 A sword, a mail shirt, and then all sorts of little 30:57.167 --> 30:59.727 paraphernalia, some of it with Christian symbols like 30:59.733 --> 31:05.773 crosses, some of it very much in the pagan kind of world. 31:08.867 --> 31:10.567 Beowulf and Sutton Hoo go together. 31:10.567 --> 31:17.327 They both show us a world of treasure, of weapons, of 31:17.333 --> 31:22.033 drinking halls, of palaces, sort of isolated. 31:22.033 --> 31:24.033 The drinking hall is important, as 31:24.033 --> 31:25.133 you know from Beowulf. 31:25.133 --> 31:28.933 It is the manifestation of civilization. 31:28.933 --> 31:32.803 It is that protection from outside that Bede describes in 31:32.800 --> 31:35.770 the little sparrow anecdote. 31:35.767 --> 31:39.697 But it is also the center of government. 31:39.700 --> 31:45.130 We're back to the ruler and his entourage or comitatus, 31:45.133 --> 31:50.373 his gang, if you want to put a more cynical coloration on it. 31:56.467 --> 32:00.827 So the conversion of England is completed by the late 32:00.833 --> 32:05.373 seventh century, but it is a more complicated story than 32:05.367 --> 32:09.067 just monolithic Christianity versus monolithic paganism 32:09.067 --> 32:12.727 because there are two kinds of Christianity that seek to 32:12.733 --> 32:14.073 convert England. 32:14.067 --> 32:18.027 One from Ireland and one from Rome. 32:22.167 --> 32:25.097 Ireland, let's just pause over Ireland. 32:25.100 --> 32:28.430 Never part of the Roman Empire, as I said. 32:28.433 --> 32:32.833 But, it's also the first place outside the Roman world to 32:32.833 --> 32:36.003 been converted to Christianity, the first place 32:36.000 --> 32:36.800 in Europe actually. 32:36.800 --> 32:40.400 The first place period is Ethiopia. 32:40.400 --> 32:44.370 Ethiopia, of course in northeastern Africa, would be 32:44.367 --> 32:47.267 converted to Christianity very early, 32:47.267 --> 32:51.397 fourth century AD probably. 32:51.400 --> 33:02.700 But within Europe, Ireland was converted to Christianity by 33:02.700 --> 33:07.030 the British or English missionary Saint Patrick. 33:07.033 --> 33:13.373 This is a little embarrassing, but in fact, the apostle to 33:13.367 --> 33:17.897 Ireland is one of those British, Celtic, Roman, fourth 33:17.900 --> 33:21.800 - century figures, Patrick. 33:21.800 --> 33:26.730 So in 600 AD, Ireland was largely Catholic, while 33:26.733 --> 33:28.403 England was mostly pagan. 33:31.200 --> 33:36.530 Irish Christianity had certain peculiarities, some of them 33:36.533 --> 33:40.133 related to its lack of a Roman past. Thus, for example, it 33:40.133 --> 33:43.633 did not have bishops really, or the bishops were weak 33:43.633 --> 33:46.203 because there had not been cities in Ireland 33:46.200 --> 33:48.030 on the Roman model. 33:48.033 --> 33:50.673 And therefore, Christianity didn't have an urban 33:50.667 --> 33:53.927 background, but rather a very decentralized and rural 33:53.933 --> 33:55.203 background. 33:55.200 --> 34:00.470 The most powerful institutions in Ireland were monasteries 34:00.467 --> 34:03.097 because these were great rural centers. 34:03.100 --> 34:07.430 And so the monks ruled over the bishops generally. 34:07.433 --> 34:12.373 Irish monasticism was very austere. 34:12.367 --> 34:16.067 The Irish monks were more ascetic than the monks we'll 34:16.067 --> 34:19.367 be meeting next week from the Benedictine 34:19.367 --> 34:22.827 tradition started in Italy. 34:22.833 --> 34:26.503 And they also were less fixed in one place. 34:30.467 --> 34:32.927 In Benedictine monasticism, you're not supposed to move. 34:32.933 --> 34:34.033 You're supposed to be stable. 34:34.033 --> 34:37.373 You're supposed to go through the same routine every day. 34:37.367 --> 34:41.897 The Irish favored a more wandering existence and the 34:41.900 --> 34:44.400 establishment of little communities or 34:44.400 --> 34:47.030 colonies far away. 34:47.033 --> 34:51.933 The Irish form of piety emphasizes exile, and it might 34:51.933 --> 34:58.403 be exile to a scary, an almost unimaginable kind of 34:58.400 --> 34:59.400 environment. 34:59.400 --> 35:04.370 There are, for example, lots of little islands in the Irish 35:04.367 --> 35:08.467 Sea that seem to be uninhabitable. 35:08.467 --> 35:12.527 That is if you look at them from the tour boat, you see a 35:12.533 --> 35:16.173 lot of birds, and it's a birders paradise. 35:16.167 --> 35:21.167 But in the middle of July, it's overcast, raining, and 35:21.167 --> 35:22.467 the sea is pounding. 35:22.467 --> 35:27.427 And then you notice there a little remnants of houses. 35:27.433 --> 35:29.703 Yes? 35:29.700 --> 35:30.300 Question? 35:30.300 --> 35:32.830 STUDENT: No. 35:32.833 --> 35:35.803 PROFESSOR: Little caves where people in 35:35.800 --> 35:38.870 the sixth and seventh century lived. 35:38.867 --> 35:43.797 Or the island is tiny, smaller than this building, and it 35:43.800 --> 35:45.630 looks like twenty people were living there. 35:45.633 --> 35:48.873 What are they living on? 35:48.867 --> 35:55.667 Well, poultry I guess, but this is a very severe form of 35:55.667 --> 35:56.497 asceticism. 35:56.500 --> 36:01.530 And the wandering also can mean just holing up on some 36:01.533 --> 36:06.533 island or wandering around the European continent and 36:06.533 --> 36:07.873 converting people. 36:07.867 --> 36:12.027 The Irish were great missionaries, both to England 36:12.033 --> 36:13.473 and to the continent. 36:13.467 --> 36:15.467 And we'll be talking about that some more. 36:15.467 --> 36:20.027 What about the Irish as the saviors of civilization, a 36:20.033 --> 36:23.303 book published about eight, nine years ago? 36:23.300 --> 36:25.830 How the Irish Saved Civilization is like all 36:25.833 --> 36:28.903 such-- well, most such popular books-- 36:28.900 --> 36:32.900 kind of overdone and reductionist. It's not 36:32.900 --> 36:37.430 literally exactly true, but here again, as with England, 36:37.433 --> 36:43.833 we have a society that had no Roman influence, and yet had a 36:43.833 --> 36:46.033 highly developed tradition of learning, 36:46.033 --> 36:47.733 preservation of Latin. 36:47.733 --> 36:50.433 In part, very good knowledge of Latin because they didn't 36:50.433 --> 36:51.773 think they spoke it. 36:51.767 --> 36:54.467 Remember we said of people in the former Roman empire? 36:54.467 --> 36:58.727 It's hard to date the point at which someone in Spain is no 36:58.733 --> 37:01.033 longer speaking Latin but is speaking something that we can 37:01.033 --> 37:03.603 start to call Spanish. 37:03.600 --> 37:06.170 And in Ireland, the distinction was quite clear. 37:06.167 --> 37:08.627 You had to learn Latin in lessons. 37:08.633 --> 37:09.733 You had to go to class. 37:09.733 --> 37:11.333 You had to be taught Latin. 37:11.333 --> 37:14.973 And so the Latin that was taught was bookish, but for 37:14.967 --> 37:18.497 that in many respects, correct. 37:25.333 --> 37:28.933 Finally, the Irish celebrated Easter according to a 37:28.933 --> 37:31.573 different calendar. 37:31.567 --> 37:35.997 And so when we refer to the Irish or the Celtic Church, we 37:36.000 --> 37:40.470 mean this more decentralized Church, this somewhat more 37:40.467 --> 37:47.597 wandering missionary Church, a Church that was less 37:47.600 --> 37:51.300 hierarchical and less organized around bishops than 37:51.300 --> 37:54.070 that of its rival Rome. 37:54.067 --> 37:56.367 The story of the seventh century in England is 37:56.367 --> 38:00.727 therefore partly the story of competition between paganism 38:00.733 --> 38:03.433 and Christianity and flip flopping between them. 38:03.433 --> 38:07.873 And competition between Irish Christianity, represented by, 38:07.867 --> 38:11.927 for example, the monastery of Iona in what's now Scotland, 38:11.933 --> 38:18.133 I-O-N-A, the missions of St. Aidan, A-I-D-A-N, whom Bede 38:18.133 --> 38:20.903 describes with great sympathy even though he 38:20.900 --> 38:23.200 doesn't agree with him. 38:23.200 --> 38:27.470 But the controversy really centered, ultimately, or at 38:27.467 --> 38:34.027 least in an immediate sense, over Easter. 38:34.033 --> 38:50.003 At the Synod of Whitby in 664, it was decided to embrace the 38:50.000 --> 38:51.770 Roman calculation of Easter. 38:51.767 --> 38:55.767 And with that, bishops, hierarchy, a 38:55.767 --> 38:58.597 more organized Church. 38:58.600 --> 39:01.000 I have a lot of trouble with this Easter problem. 39:01.000 --> 39:02.930 You will have noticed that I have evaded telling you 39:02.933 --> 39:05.773 exactly what the calculations are. 39:05.767 --> 39:07.967 Some of you may know much better than me. 39:07.967 --> 39:14.067 But the Jewish Passover is established by lunar months. 39:14.067 --> 39:17.097 Christians wanted to break with Jewish tradition in 39:17.100 --> 39:20.570 celebrating Easter according to a 39:20.567 --> 39:22.267 somewhat different calendar. 39:22.267 --> 39:26.867 So it combined lunar and solar methods of calculation, a very 39:26.867 --> 39:29.667 complex operation therefore. 39:29.667 --> 39:33.797 In the year 455, Rome, that is to say the Papacy under our 39:33.800 --> 39:36.600 friend Leo I-- 39:36.600 --> 39:41.400 mission to the Huns, definition of the two natures 39:41.400 --> 39:42.270 of Christ-- 39:42.267 --> 39:47.027 Leo I and Rome opted for a nineteen-year cycle of 39:47.033 --> 39:48.333 calculating Easter. 39:48.333 --> 39:51.603 But the Celtic churches, cut off from the continent-- 39:51.600 --> 39:56.330 remember, we're in this post-Roman world of very 39:56.333 --> 39:58.103 little contact-- 39:58.100 --> 40:00.970 kept an eighty-four-year cycle. 40:00.967 --> 40:05.067 So in the seventh century, when the Roman missionaries 40:05.067 --> 40:08.767 had arrived again, you have two conflicting dates for 40:08.767 --> 40:10.797 Easter every year. 40:10.800 --> 40:14.100 I mean occasionally, just as with the Orthodox and Catholic 40:14.100 --> 40:15.470 Easters, they come together. 40:15.467 --> 40:17.667 So every so often, they will actually be the same Sunday, 40:17.667 --> 40:19.167 but generally speaking, different. 40:19.167 --> 40:22.697 And so you get these ludicrous scenes like I'm King Oswiu of 40:22.700 --> 40:27.230 Northumbria celebrating Easter according to the Celtic 40:27.233 --> 40:31.733 tradition, and his wife, who was from Kent, celebrated it 40:31.733 --> 40:34.273 according to the Roman tradition. 40:34.267 --> 40:37.797 So one Sunday was Celtic Easter, and then the next 40:37.800 --> 40:39.530 Sunday was Roman Easter. 40:42.300 --> 40:44.630 So it's not so much that Easter is so important 40:44.633 --> 40:47.803 intrinsically, but it is a symbol of the embrace of the 40:47.800 --> 40:52.970 Roman form of Christianity, and the bringing of England 40:52.967 --> 40:56.097 into an orientation more towards the continent than 40:56.100 --> 41:00.900 towards the Celtic West. 41:00.900 --> 41:04.330 What is amazing, as I said before, is how quickly, once 41:04.333 --> 41:06.973 the conversion takes place, England becomes not only 41:06.967 --> 41:11.367 integrated into the continent, but a place of great cultural 41:11.367 --> 41:12.597 accomplishment. 41:15.233 --> 41:18.533 The great archbishop of Canterbury of this post-Whitby 41:18.533 --> 41:24.373 era, Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury 669-690, 41:24.367 --> 41:31.897 established bishoprics, monasteries, an endowed them 41:31.900 --> 41:34.570 with books. 41:34.567 --> 41:35.527 Theodore was an interesting character. 41:35.533 --> 41:36.803 He's actually from Syria. 41:39.367 --> 41:43.597 And how somebody from Syria becomes archbishop of 41:43.600 --> 41:46.600 Canterbury, something that would be very unlikely now, in 41:46.600 --> 41:53.230 the seventh century AD is an aspect of some preservation of 41:53.233 --> 41:55.803 the outlines of the cosmopolitan Roman world that 41:55.800 --> 41:58.000 we began the course with. 41:58.000 --> 42:01.270 There are a lot of Syrian popes at this time too, Syrian 42:01.267 --> 42:04.027 and Greek popes from the Eastern Mediterranean. 42:09.900 --> 42:14.730 The first manuscript we have of the Bible as a single 42:14.733 --> 42:15.373 manuscript-- 42:15.367 --> 42:18.067 in other words where all of the books of the Bible are 42:18.067 --> 42:20.667 contained in the same volume-- 42:20.667 --> 42:23.627 is from this place and this era, the 42:23.633 --> 42:25.173 so-called Codex Amiatinus. 42:37.033 --> 42:44.433 A magnificently decorated Bible, sent to the pope in 42:44.433 --> 42:50.903 716, written at Bede's monastery of Jarrow, now in 42:50.900 --> 42:53.270 Florence at the Medici 42:53.267 --> 42:55.697 Laurentian Library of Florence. 42:59.067 --> 43:02.997 It is decorated in this very distinctive style that you all 43:03.000 --> 43:06.870 know, if not from courses, from 43:06.867 --> 43:08.397 Christmas cards and stuff. 43:08.400 --> 43:12.200 The Book of Kells is the most famous example of this. 43:12.200 --> 43:14.870 This is the so-called Insular style because it's shared by 43:14.867 --> 43:18.497 both Celtic Ireland and Anglo-Saxon England. 43:18.500 --> 43:24.700 Lots of intricate curlicues, complicated animals, 43:24.700 --> 43:30.400 magnificent contrasts of color, a kind of abstraction 43:30.400 --> 43:31.500 when you first look at it. 43:31.500 --> 43:33.400 It looks like an oriental carpet. 43:33.400 --> 43:36.000 But in fact, if you look at it a little more closely, you can 43:36.000 --> 43:42.170 see that there all sorts of little intertwined animals or 43:42.167 --> 43:45.697 fantastic shapes and colors within it. 43:50.433 --> 43:52.173 Questions? 43:52.167 --> 43:53.397 Problems? 43:53.400 --> 43:57.770 We could spend an entire semester on England, but I 43:57.767 --> 44:02.097 think we've had at least a taste of its significance, 44:02.100 --> 44:07.130 both in its own right and as one more and rather different 44:07.133 --> 44:11.303 aspect of the post-Roman world that we've been occupied with. 44:11.300 --> 44:12.930 I'll see you for the exam on Monday.