WEBVTT 00:01.910 --> 00:03.640 Prof: Okay. 00:03.637 --> 00:09.007 So for 150 years organic chemistry courses have tended to 00:09.012 --> 00:12.182 acquire a daunting reputation. 00:12.180 --> 00:16.210 So you need help. 00:16.210 --> 00:18.530 I know you're very able, but trust me, 00:18.534 --> 00:19.544 you need help. 00:19.540 --> 00:20.670 So where do you the help? 00:20.670 --> 00:22.430 The PowerPoints are available on the Web. 00:22.430 --> 00:25.240 How many of you've already seen the PowerPoint for today, 00:25.236 --> 00:26.586 just so I have some idea? 00:26.590 --> 00:29.160 So about a quarter of you maybe. 00:29.160 --> 00:31.620 Okay, but anyhow, so your lecture notes are 00:31.618 --> 00:33.328 important, but you don't have to worry 00:33.326 --> 00:35.456 about getting everything down because you can download it from 00:35.464 --> 00:35.854 the Web. 00:35.850 --> 00:39.720 And I do it on a Mac, but I try my best to make it 00:39.716 --> 00:44.056 compatible with PCs and even with the free PC Viewer for 00:44.056 --> 00:45.236 PowerPoint. 00:45.240 --> 00:46.880 So you should be able to see it. 00:46.880 --> 00:49.360 But I don't see it on a PC. 00:49.360 --> 00:53.720 So if anything doesn't come through, let me know so that I 00:53.716 --> 00:54.706 can fix it. 00:54.710 --> 00:58.320 Okay then, in-class discussion is very important, 00:58.320 --> 01:01.440 and if you're really, really shy and can't 01:01.439 --> 01:04.329 participate in discussion in class, 01:04.329 --> 01:07.779 then email me a question. Okay? 01:07.780 --> 01:11.200 There's the course website, which is our substitute for a 01:11.201 --> 01:11.631 text. 01:11.629 --> 01:14.889 It also includes the PowerPoint, and there's the link 01:14.887 --> 01:18.017 for it, and when go there you'll see it develop. 01:18.019 --> 01:20.699 The current website is mostly last year's course, 01:20.698 --> 01:24.108 so it'll change a little bit as we go along, but fundamentally 01:24.105 --> 01:25.105 it's the same. 01:25.110 --> 01:28.360 If you want to look ahead you'll see pretty much what's 01:28.358 --> 01:29.078 coming up. 01:29.080 --> 01:31.760 There'll be assigned problems and questions, 01:31.757 --> 01:35.057 and also there are previous exams and answers keys. 01:35.060 --> 01:39.320 All these things are on the course website so you'll get 01:39.322 --> 01:40.332 help there. 01:40.330 --> 01:43.220 But one thing that's really special is the course Wiki. 01:43.220 --> 01:46.700 This is the third year we've done it and the second year in a 01:46.697 --> 01:48.087 really systematic way. 01:48.090 --> 01:52.650 So you get assigned to do, to cover a couple frames of the 01:52.650 --> 01:53.690 PowerPoint. 01:53.690 --> 01:57.220 So those are the ones you really need to take careful 01:57.224 --> 02:01.104 notes on, and write them up, and help other people too; 02:01.099 --> 02:02.949 that's the nature of a Wiki, as you know. 02:02.950 --> 02:06.440 How many of you have participated in a Wiki? 02:06.438 --> 02:10.688 Well, by next week it will be all of you. 02:10.688 --> 02:14.358 Okay, but in order to get credit for it you have to get it 02:14.363 --> 02:16.493 by the night after the lecture. 02:16.490 --> 02:19.610 So for the lecture today you have to get it by late tomorrow 02:19.613 --> 02:21.523 night, 36 hours after the lecture. 02:21.520 --> 02:25.330 This is so other students can use it. 02:25.330 --> 02:28.110 Okay, in the spring there'll probably be a textbook. 02:28.110 --> 02:29.410 I haven't really decided yet. 02:29.408 --> 02:30.858 These things cost an arm and a leg. 02:30.860 --> 02:35.380 Maybe we can find one that's used, an older edition. 02:35.378 --> 02:39.808 It doesn't make any difference except to the publishers. 02:39.810 --> 02:43.180 Okay, also there's personal help, like from me, 02:43.175 --> 02:46.615 and there's -- and you can find my phone number, 02:46.615 --> 02:49.245 email and so on, on the website. 02:49.250 --> 02:52.460 Also the two graduate student TAs who are assigned to the 02:52.456 --> 02:57.846 course, who are Filip Kolundzic -- 02:57.848 --> 03:04.448 Filip, back there -- and Nathan Schley, 03:04.454 --> 03:07.474 not Schlay, Schley. 03:07.468 --> 03:12.378 So these are graduate students in chemistry and they run these 03:12.378 --> 03:14.148 discussion sections. 03:14.150 --> 03:17.880 Typically you have a 50-minute discussion section. 03:17.878 --> 03:21.268 But the way we run it in this course is that on two different 03:21.265 --> 03:23.745 nights a week there are two-hour sessions. 03:23.750 --> 03:26.160 You can come to any part of it you want to. 03:26.158 --> 03:28.918 You can go to both of them, you can go to four hours a week 03:28.924 --> 03:31.124 if you want to, or you can go to none at all if 03:31.116 --> 03:31.876 you want to. 03:31.878 --> 03:36.028 So really, for the bookkeeping purposes of the department you 03:36.026 --> 03:38.236 have to sign up for a section. 03:38.240 --> 03:43.380 Sign up for any section you want to and then come to what's 03:43.382 --> 03:44.892 useful for you. 03:44.889 --> 03:47.789 But also, the reason you pay the big bucks to come here, 03:47.789 --> 03:50.369 is not to hear me, it's to interact with the other 03:50.373 --> 03:51.063 students. 03:51.060 --> 03:52.090 That's a really big help. 03:52.090 --> 03:55.130 So, form study groups. 03:55.128 --> 03:58.258 And in fact you can get advice from previous people who've 03:58.264 --> 03:59.314 taken the course. 03:59.310 --> 04:00.750 That's on the Web. 04:00.750 --> 04:04.100 Also there's some of them, there's a list of them on the 04:04.104 --> 04:07.464 Web who would be happy to talk to you if you need it. 04:07.460 --> 04:10.940 And we're blessed with three alumni, 04:10.938 --> 04:14.348 seniors who took this course as freshmen, 04:14.348 --> 04:16.668 who act as what are called peer tutors, 04:16.670 --> 04:18.430 and they'll run a session Sunday evening, 04:18.430 --> 04:19.720 from eight to ten p.m. 04:19.723 --> 04:20.963 is the current plan. 04:20.959 --> 04:24.049 We'll announce the rooms for these things on the website and 04:24.048 --> 04:25.878 probably by email to you as well. 04:25.879 --> 04:33.169 So let me introduce Tina Ho and Drew Klein and Justin Kim. 04:33.170 --> 04:34.450 So they'll be a big help to you too. 04:34.449 --> 04:40.159 So there's plenty of personal help, so use it. 04:40.160 --> 04:42.200 These are the dates we're going to have exams. 04:42.199 --> 04:44.279 There are ten lectures and then an exam; 04:44.279 --> 04:46.159 nine lectures, exam; nine lectures, exam. 04:46.160 --> 04:48.110 Actually, if you check, you'll find that -- 04:48.110 --> 04:52.630 and also you get 50 points for participation in the Wiki, 04:52.629 --> 04:57.249 and the total is 650 points, that's what your exam is based 04:57.250 --> 04:57.650 on. 04:57.649 --> 05:00.949 Actually this doesn't cover -- it's nine lectures that are 05:00.947 --> 05:03.567 covered on the exam, but the previous Wednesday part 05:03.569 --> 05:06.109 of the lecture is going to be a guest lecturer that's going to 05:06.108 --> 05:07.148 be here just that day. 05:07.149 --> 05:09.759 So we're putting the exam off and it'll only cover the 05:09.762 --> 05:12.402 previous material; not that that's a big deal. 05:12.399 --> 05:16.079 Okay, and the semester grade is biased; 05:16.079 --> 05:19.199 that is, it's based on this, your total score here, 05:19.201 --> 05:20.451 out of 650 points. 05:20.449 --> 05:24.099 But if you're near a cutoff and you were very good about turning 05:24.096 --> 05:27.276 in your problem sets and so on, then we boost you up. 05:27.278 --> 05:33.448 We don't grade problem sets but it's worthwhile to do them, 05:33.447 --> 05:37.167 and they might make a difference. 05:37.170 --> 05:38.830 So where are we going with this? 05:38.829 --> 05:41.569 What are the goals of our Freshman Organic Chemistry? 05:41.569 --> 05:44.949 In fact, if you click that in your PowerPoint you'll get taken 05:44.946 --> 05:47.326 to that site, but it's right on the website, 05:47.326 --> 05:48.706 you'll see it anyhow. 05:48.709 --> 05:52.669 First is to learn the crucial facts and vocabulary of Organic 05:52.666 --> 05:54.626 Chemistry -- after all that's what we think 05:54.627 --> 05:57.907 we're here for -- and to develop a theoretical 05:57.911 --> 06:01.241 intuition about how bonding works. 06:01.240 --> 06:04.330 This is the goal for, the primary goal of the first 06:04.329 --> 06:08.409 half of the fall semester is to learn how bonding works really, 06:08.410 --> 06:12.370 and that relates then to molecular structure; 06:12.370 --> 06:16.610 and also how bonding changes, and that of course is 06:16.608 --> 06:17.708 reactivity. 06:17.709 --> 06:21.539 But under the line there are a lot of other things that we do 06:21.541 --> 06:24.991 in Freshman Organic Chemistry that are arguably just as 06:24.990 --> 06:28.060 important, like make the scientific 06:28.055 --> 06:31.385 transition from school to university. 06:31.389 --> 06:34.059 In school they try to teach you what people know. 06:34.060 --> 06:37.220 In the University you try to develop new knowledge. 06:37.220 --> 06:39.900 So you need a different mindset for that, and we hope this 06:39.896 --> 06:41.396 course helps you develop that. 06:41.399 --> 06:45.159 So learn from Organic Chemistry, which is really in my 06:45.158 --> 06:49.058 view a model science, how to be a creative scientist. 06:49.060 --> 06:51.910 So here's a creative scientist by anybody's measure, 06:51.913 --> 06:52.813 Louis Pasteur. 06:52.810 --> 06:56.720 And in the 1880s he said this in French, 06:56.720 --> 07:00.120 but in English it says, "Knowing to be astonished 07:00.119 --> 07:04.159 by something is the mind's first step toward discovery." 07:04.160 --> 07:08.610 Another way of putting that is that the characteristic comment 07:08.612 --> 07:13.212 on making a real discovery is not "Eureka", 07:13.209 --> 07:16.799 it's "Huh, that's funny." So 07:16.803 --> 07:19.993 that's what you really have to learn; 07:19.990 --> 07:23.550 learn enough about how chemistry works and form this 07:23.547 --> 07:27.727 picture in your mind that when something happens that doesn't 07:27.732 --> 07:29.982 fit, you know to be astonished so 07:29.983 --> 07:31.903 that you can discover something. 07:31.899 --> 07:35.849 That's exactly what Pasteur did, and we'll talk about that 07:35.850 --> 07:36.960 in the course. 07:36.959 --> 07:40.389 And even perhaps more important, to develop good 07:40.394 --> 07:44.564 taste, so that you can distinguish sense from nonsense; 07:44.560 --> 07:47.450 there's certainly more nonsense floating around than sense, 07:47.454 --> 07:50.104 and being able to tell the difference is important. 07:50.100 --> 07:53.620 The way you do it is to develop good taste by looking at a lot 07:53.620 --> 07:57.030 of good examples and then you're aware of how crummy the bad 07:57.028 --> 07:58.008 examples are. 07:58.009 --> 08:01.789 So we're going to try to emphasize good examples, 08:01.788 --> 08:02.968 and have fun. 08:02.970 --> 08:06.160 08:06.160 --> 08:08.720 So and as we go along, if you have questions, 08:08.720 --> 08:09.360 break in. 08:09.360 --> 08:13.000 You'll do this much more as we go along, I know. 08:13.000 --> 08:16.550 So the class really is mostly about theory, 08:16.547 --> 08:21.607 although we describe the basis for the theory and spend a lot 08:21.613 --> 08:24.573 of time trying to make it real. 08:24.569 --> 08:29.319 But we require Chemistry 126L, the lab. 08:29.319 --> 08:32.659 This is the only chemistry course that requires you to take 08:32.655 --> 08:33.975 a lab simultaneously. 08:33.980 --> 08:36.840 So I hope you're all enrolling in that because there'll be a 08:36.842 --> 08:39.272 certain day that you want to be able to take it. 08:39.269 --> 08:42.949 It's just one afternoon a week, three hours or whatever it is, 08:42.950 --> 08:46.390 but you want to get your first choice, so line up soon. 08:46.389 --> 08:50.279 You'll be accommodated but it's just more convenient if you get 08:50.279 --> 08:51.659 it arranged earlier. 08:51.659 --> 08:52.759 But why? 08:52.759 --> 08:57.159 Because lab answers the really big question. 08:57.158 --> 09:01.588 And the big question was brought home to me by my son, 09:01.587 --> 09:04.427 John McBride, in his third year. 09:04.428 --> 09:07.268 This was the beginning of the third year, and his mother and I 09:07.272 --> 09:08.672 didn't know what was coming. 09:08.668 --> 09:12.878 For the next year, maybe 15, maybe 20 times a day, 09:12.878 --> 09:17.428 he said, "How do you know?" 09:17.429 --> 09:19.729 So here's John this last summer. 09:19.730 --> 09:25.130 He's now 38 and he has his own three-year-olds to say that to 09:25.129 --> 09:25.669 him. 09:25.668 --> 09:27.288 And he doesn't say, "How do you 09:27.291 --> 09:28.021 know?" anymore. 09:28.019 --> 09:29.059 He now says, "How do you 09:29.062 --> 09:30.072 know?" 09:30.070 --> 09:32.130 Okay? 09:32.129 --> 09:35.229 But that is the main question, how do you know what these 09:35.232 --> 09:37.342 things that they told you in school? 09:37.340 --> 09:41.010 Well, there are four ways we can talk about of knowing, 09:41.014 --> 09:44.554 and two of them are shown on this manuscript from the 09:44.554 --> 09:46.534 Carolingian book painter. 09:46.529 --> 09:50.699 If we zoom in on the top frame, here's Moses on Mount Sinai. 09:50.700 --> 09:55.810 So the first way of knowing is divine authority. 09:55.808 --> 09:58.898 Here he's going to be the -- here's the graduate student here 09:58.900 --> 09:59.880 getting the word. 09:59.879 --> 10:02.579 Here's the teaching assistant over on the left perhaps. 10:02.580 --> 10:03.740 > 10:03.740 --> 10:05.090 Aaron, right? 10:05.090 --> 10:09.750 And then he comes down from Sinai, to see the class, 10:09.753 --> 10:12.043 the Children of Israel. 10:12.038 --> 10:16.438 So here's another kind of authority, which is human 10:16.440 --> 10:19.960 authority interpreting the scriptures. 10:19.960 --> 10:23.840 And here you can see the class; the guys are going like 10:23.839 --> 10:25.619 "huh." 10:25.620 --> 10:29.720 And the teaching assistant is off on the side still. 10:29.720 --> 10:31.090 But this doesn't make it. 10:31.090 --> 10:34.640 Science is not faith based. 10:34.639 --> 10:40.249 There may be other things you know that way but not science. 10:40.250 --> 10:44.130 Science ignores divine authority and it ignores human 10:44.125 --> 10:46.955 authority; not that they might not exist 10:46.956 --> 10:49.226 but they don't relate to science. 10:49.230 --> 10:53.960 Now as you walked in today, did you notice these things 10:53.958 --> 10:55.008 over here? 10:55.009 --> 10:58.079 There's an Honor Roll of Chemists, and in fact we'll use 10:58.083 --> 11:02.393 that a lot this semester, and in particular one of the 11:02.394 --> 11:06.024 people on there is Michael Faraday, 11:06.019 --> 11:08.269 who started in a very humble way. 11:08.269 --> 11:13.719 He was a book binder's apprentice and he bound this 11:13.719 --> 11:16.349 book -- not this particular copy but 11:16.351 --> 11:18.541 this book -- which is called 11:18.543 --> 11:21.873 Conversations on Chemistry. 11:21.870 --> 11:23.970 He bound the first edition. 11:23.970 --> 11:29.530 This one is a later edition. 11:29.528 --> 11:32.148 So you see it's Conversations on Chemistry in 11:32.148 --> 11:35.378 which Elements of that Science are Familiarly Explained and 11:35.379 --> 11:37.329 Illustrated by Experiments. 11:37.330 --> 11:43.210 And who's the author? 11:43.210 --> 11:46.920 J.L.***Comstock; he's actually not the author, 11:46.921 --> 11:49.261 he's the guy who stole it. 11:49.259 --> 11:51.609 He stole it from a woman, Mrs. Marcet, 11:51.605 --> 11:53.945 in England, who wrote this book, 11:53.950 --> 11:55.420 which was the most popular textbook -- 11:55.418 --> 12:00.378 it was written for girls -- but it was the most popular textbook 12:00.375 --> 12:03.085 in all chemistry, for the first half of the 12:03.094 --> 12:04.014 nineteenth century. 12:04.009 --> 12:06.379 It went through like 20-some editions. 12:06.379 --> 12:10.559 And here you see at the beginning it's a dialogue, 12:10.559 --> 12:14.999 a conversation between Mrs. B and Caroline and Emily, 12:14.996 --> 12:19.426 and it's fun to see this here, what Emily says at the 12:19.433 --> 12:20.973 beginning. 12:20.970 --> 12:22.980 "To confess the truth Mrs. B, 12:22.980 --> 12:27.100 I'm not disposed to form a very favorable idea of chemistry, 12:27.100 --> 12:30.640 nor do I expect to derive much entertainment from it." 12:30.639 --> 12:32.609 But in the long run, as you can imagine, 12:32.614 --> 12:34.644 they have a lot of fun with chemistry. 12:34.639 --> 12:37.839 It was a wonderful book, and still is. 12:37.840 --> 12:41.420 But he was binding it, and read it. 12:41.418 --> 12:46.088 And look what he says about this, as his introduction to be 12:46.087 --> 12:50.187 the leading experimental scientist of the nineteenth 12:50.192 --> 12:52.902 century: "Do not suppose I was a 12:52.903 --> 12:56.233 very deep thinker or was marked as a precocious person. 12:56.230 --> 12:59.250 I was a very lively, imaginative person and could 12:59.246 --> 13:03.266 believe in the Arabian Knights as easily as the encyclopedia, 13:03.269 --> 13:07.139 but facts were important to me and saved me. 13:07.139 --> 13:12.349 I could trust a fact and always cross-examined an assertion. 13:12.350 --> 13:15.360 So when I questioned Mrs. Marcet's book by such 13:15.360 --> 13:19.090 little experiments as I could find means to perform, 13:19.090 --> 13:22.890 and found it true to the facts, as I could understand them, 13:22.889 --> 13:27.869 I felt I had got hold of an anchor in chemical knowledge and 13:27.869 --> 13:29.979 clung fast to it." 13:29.980 --> 13:33.780 So the experiments were what did it. 13:33.779 --> 13:39.109 So the third way of knowing is by experimental observation. 13:39.110 --> 13:42.150 And here's Richard Feynman. 13:42.149 --> 13:44.409 How many of you've heard of Richard Feynman? 13:44.408 --> 13:47.078 He was a really great physicist, wrote a wonderful 13:47.081 --> 13:49.811 textbook as well as getting all sorts of prizes. 13:49.808 --> 13:52.638 He spoke to the National Science Teachers Association in 13:52.638 --> 13:55.238 1966 saying, "Learn from science that 13:55.235 --> 13:56.995 you must doubt the experts. 13:57.000 --> 14:01.320 Science is the belief in the ignorance of experts. 14:01.320 --> 14:04.520 When someone says, 'Science teaches such and 14:04.524 --> 14:07.584 such,' he's using the word incorrectly. 14:07.580 --> 14:12.010 Science doesn't teach it; experience teaches it. 14:12.009 --> 14:14.529 If they say to you, 'Science has shown such and 14:14.529 --> 14:17.269 such,' you might ask, 'How does science show it? 14:17.269 --> 14:19.199 How did the scientists find out? 14:19.200 --> 14:21.650 How, what, where?' 14:21.649 --> 14:26.849 Not science has shown, but this experiment or this 14:26.846 --> 14:29.496 effect has shown." 14:29.500 --> 14:36.730 Now, why do we quote Feynman? 14:36.730 --> 14:38.670 Because he's an expert. 14:38.669 --> 14:39.669 > 14:39.669 --> 14:42.139 Wrong. 14:42.139 --> 14:44.369 Though literally, expert, 14:44.374 --> 14:48.564 the etymology of expert, is it means someone who has 14:48.556 --> 14:50.066 done experiments. 14:50.070 --> 14:56.850 We quote him because what he says makes sense. 14:56.850 --> 14:59.910 So logic is the fourth way of knowing things. 14:59.908 --> 15:03.878 So the two ways that we know things in chemistry, 15:03.883 --> 15:07.363 or in science, are experiment and logic. 15:07.360 --> 15:10.820 And the lecture is a little bit more focused on logic and the 15:10.822 --> 15:12.962 lab is more focused on experiment, 15:12.960 --> 15:17.960 and you get an unbalanced view if you do one without the other. 15:17.960 --> 15:20.790 Okay, so modern science got underway in the seventeenth 15:20.785 --> 15:21.305 century. 15:21.308 --> 15:25.368 There's the seventeenth century, 1600 to 1700. 15:25.370 --> 15:29.830 And 1638 was when New Haven Colony was founded, 15:29.831 --> 15:33.421 and 1701 was when Yale was founded. 15:33.418 --> 15:35.838 So that's when everything got underway, just when this 15:35.839 --> 15:37.299 enterprise was beginning here. 15:37.299 --> 15:40.819 Here we are. 15:40.820 --> 15:43.940 If you go back 100 years you get to quantum, 15:43.942 --> 15:47.252 quantization by Planck; and we'll talk about that. 15:47.250 --> 15:50.970 And if you go back another 100 years you get to Lavoisier and 15:50.966 --> 15:53.406 oxidation; and we'll talk about that. 15:53.408 --> 15:56.188 And if you get another 100 years you get to Newton and 15:56.186 --> 15:58.576 gravitation; and we'll talk a little bit 15:58.581 --> 15:59.321 about that. 15:59.320 --> 16:01.150 And if you go back a little more, another 100 years, 16:01.149 --> 16:04.549 you get to Copernicus and the revolution of the heavenly 16:04.551 --> 16:08.401 bodies, and Columbus and navigation, 16:08.399 --> 16:12.089 and Luther and the Reformation. 16:12.090 --> 16:14.860 And these things all have something in common. 16:14.860 --> 16:17.990 As Robert Hooke wrote, "The seventeenth 16:17.993 --> 16:20.913 century" (his age) "was an age, 16:20.908 --> 16:24.258 of all others, the most inquisitive." 16:24.259 --> 16:28.219 All these things have to do with people inquiring into how 16:28.216 --> 16:31.546 people know things and finding out new things. 16:31.548 --> 16:37.058 And in particular an important figure was Francis Bacon and his 16:37.056 --> 16:39.006 Instauration. 16:39.009 --> 16:40.899 Now you may not know The Instauration so well, 16:40.897 --> 16:41.657 let's look at that. 16:41.658 --> 16:44.488 Here's Francis Bacon, there are his years. 16:44.490 --> 16:48.340 He was Elizabethan and Jacobean. 16:48.340 --> 16:53.180 He was almost exactly contemporary with Shakespeare, 16:53.177 --> 16:54.977 and with Galileo. 16:54.980 --> 16:57.730 He went to school, to university, 16:57.730 --> 16:59.020 at Cambridge. 16:59.019 --> 17:04.509 And here's a cartoon that shows him -- it's a modern cartoon -- 17:04.513 --> 17:08.063 imagining him in a class at Cambridge. 17:08.058 --> 17:10.218 Because he wrote of his tutors at Cambridge: 17:10.220 --> 17:15.620 "They were men of sharp wits, shut up in their cells of 17:15.621 --> 17:18.551 a few authors, chiefly Aristotle, 17:18.549 --> 17:20.289 their dictator. 17:20.288 --> 17:22.838 All the philosophy of nature" (philosophy meant 17:22.844 --> 17:25.904 science in those days) "all the philosophy of nature, 17:25.900 --> 17:30.900 which is now received, is either the philosophy of the 17:30.898 --> 17:34.388 Grecians or that of the alchemists. 17:34.390 --> 17:36.830 The one is gathered out of a few vulgar" 17:36.826 --> 17:40.146 (that means ‘common' of course) "observations, 17:40.150 --> 17:44.920 and the other out of a few experiments of a furnace. 17:44.920 --> 17:49.510 The one never faileth to multiply words, 17:49.513 --> 17:55.643 and the other ever faileth to multiply gold." 17:55.640 --> 17:58.240 So here's the book he wrote, The Instauration. 17:58.240 --> 17:59.670 That's the frontispiece for it. 17:59.670 --> 18:02.310 This picture's from the Beinecke Library; 18:02.308 --> 18:03.708 I went down and got a picture of the book. 18:03.710 --> 18:07.960 Notice it was published in 1620. 18:07.960 --> 18:11.810 What else happened then? 18:11.808 --> 18:15.168 That's when the Pilgrims came over, right? 18:15.170 --> 18:18.010 So the title of the book, rather small under his name and 18:18.010 --> 18:19.990 title as Lord Chancellor of England, 18:19.990 --> 18:22.990 is Instauratio Magna, which means the Great 18:22.991 --> 18:23.851 Restoration. 18:23.849 --> 18:25.309 Restoration of what? 18:25.309 --> 18:27.259 Of the way of knowing. 18:27.259 --> 18:30.529 A bigger, a part of it, it's called the Novum 18:30.527 --> 18:33.587 Organum, which is -- and it develops the 18:33.586 --> 18:36.986 inductive scientific method, based on experiment, 18:36.986 --> 18:39.586 to replace Aristotelian deduction, 18:39.588 --> 18:41.838 which is you maybe did one experiment sometime, 18:41.838 --> 18:44.808 and then you reason everything from that. 18:44.808 --> 18:46.628 But he says no, you have to do more 18:46.630 --> 18:47.380 experiments. 18:47.380 --> 18:48.750 Now there's an interesting thing here. 18:48.750 --> 18:53.990 One of the devices on the title, on this frontispiece, 18:53.989 --> 18:55.669 is two pillars. 18:55.670 --> 18:59.970 What in the world are they doing there? 18:59.970 --> 19:04.530 Well they're the same pillars that you see on this. 19:04.529 --> 19:06.889 That's a piece of eight; you know, Treasure 19:06.893 --> 19:08.503 Island, pieces of eight? 19:08.500 --> 19:12.740 See it's eight reales, and it came from the silver of 19:12.741 --> 19:17.511 Mexico; it was minted in Mexico City. 19:17.509 --> 19:21.689 So and there you see the same pillars and on them it says 19:21.694 --> 19:26.694 plus ultra; more beyond. 19:26.690 --> 19:34.970 Beyond what? 19:34.970 --> 19:39.240 What are the pillars? 19:39.240 --> 19:40.470 Pardon me? 19:40.470 --> 19:41.790 Student: Spain and Africa. 19:41.789 --> 19:44.629 Prof: Yes, it's Africa and Spain, 19:44.634 --> 19:47.524 but it's the Pillars of Hercules, 19:47.519 --> 19:49.229 which are the mouth of the Mediterranean, 19:49.230 --> 19:51.260 the old Classical World. 19:51.259 --> 19:55.009 So there's the Mountain of Moses in Morocco and the 19:55.013 --> 19:58.923 Mountain of Tarik, which is the name of Gibraltar. 19:58.920 --> 20:02.450 So here's the Mediterranean, the Classical World of 20:02.448 --> 20:06.608 Aristotle, and you can sail out into the New World and bring 20:06.613 --> 20:08.663 back silver, for example. 20:08.660 --> 20:14.840 There's danger of course. 20:14.838 --> 20:17.738 But look at what it says at the bottom. 20:17.740 --> 20:21.250 What will be brought back? 20:21.250 --> 20:23.260 Not just silver. 20:23.259 --> 20:27.379 Multi pertransibunt & augebitur scientia 20:27.378 --> 20:31.578 --"Many will pass through and knowledge will be 20:31.582 --> 20:33.232 increased." 20:33.230 --> 20:37.680 So we go beyond Aristotle into experimentally based science and 20:37.676 --> 20:39.826 knowledge will be increased. 20:39.828 --> 20:43.218 So here's some quotes from The Instauratio 20:43.221 --> 20:44.021 Magna. 20:44.019 --> 20:49.289 "That wisdom which we have derived principally from the 20:49.285 --> 20:52.315 Greeks" (no offense, okay?) 20:52.318 --> 20:56.708 "is but like the boyhood of knowledge, 20:56.710 --> 21:01.200 and has the characteristic property of boys: 21:01.204 --> 21:05.914 it can talk but it cannot generate;" 21:05.910 --> 21:10.020 "…it is but a device for exempting ignorance 21:10.023 --> 21:11.673 from ignominy." 21:11.670 --> 21:14.940 That means it's a way of hiding your ignorance, 21:14.935 --> 21:17.275 and we'll see examples of that. 21:17.278 --> 21:19.148 We'll talk about, in Lecture 11, 21:19.154 --> 21:22.744 about correlation energy, and we'll talk in Lecture 32 21:22.737 --> 21:26.417 about strain energy, and you'll see that both of 21:26.423 --> 21:31.163 these are just words that are used to hide our ignorance. 21:31.160 --> 21:34.610 "…the end which this science of mine proposes is 21:34.614 --> 21:37.324 the invention, not of arguments, 21:37.315 --> 21:41.525 but of arts" (ways of doing things). 21:41.529 --> 21:43.569 "…not so much by instruments" 21:43.565 --> 21:45.505 (although new instruments are important, 21:45.509 --> 21:49.109 like microscopes and so on) "as by experiments, 21:49.108 --> 21:53.028 skillfully and artificially devised for the express purpose 21:53.034 --> 21:56.084 of determining the point in question." 21:56.078 --> 22:01.668 (So artificial experiments designed to decide a question; 22:01.672 --> 22:03.172 experiments.) 22:03.170 --> 22:06.800 "And this will lead to the restoration of learning and 22:06.801 --> 22:07.931 knowledge." 22:07.930 --> 22:12.570 So followers of Bacon established The Royal Society in 22:12.573 --> 22:16.783 1662, just after Charles was restored to England, 22:16.778 --> 22:19.668 after the period of Cromwell. 22:19.670 --> 22:23.530 And there was a history written of The Royal Society, 22:23.532 --> 22:26.652 a book about this thick, published in 1667, 22:26.653 --> 22:29.703 only five years after it was founded. 22:29.700 --> 22:33.250 Why did they publish a history so soon? 22:33.250 --> 22:35.540 Well let's look at this, the frontis itpiece of this 22:35.536 --> 22:35.846 book. 22:35.848 --> 22:40.708 Here's the late Francis Bacon, who was said to be Artium 22:40.705 --> 22:44.385 Instaurator, the Restorer of the Arts. 22:44.390 --> 22:47.020 And here's the President of The Royal Society, 22:47.019 --> 22:49.709 the mathematician, Viscount Brouncker, 22:49.710 --> 22:52.000 and here in the middle, being crowned with laurel, 22:52.000 --> 22:54.640 is Charles II. 22:54.640 --> 22:56.610 Why do they have him up on a pedestal? 22:56.608 --> 23:00.498 Because they're hoping, as scientists have before and 23:00.496 --> 23:04.756 ever since, to extract some money out of the government to 23:04.755 --> 23:06.395 do their research. 23:06.400 --> 23:09.630 They actually never got it from Charles but it wasn't for lack 23:09.625 --> 23:10.255 of trying. 23:10.259 --> 23:14.329 And this is why they wrote the history, to try to make the case 23:14.334 --> 23:15.784 for being supported. 23:15.778 --> 23:20.078 Okay, now let's look at all the good things that will come from 23:20.080 --> 23:22.440 science, from The Royal Society. 23:22.440 --> 23:24.460 In the background can you see what that is? 23:24.460 --> 23:27.420 We'll blow it up. 23:27.420 --> 23:30.210 Here there's a hint to it on the bookshelf. 23:30.210 --> 23:34.270 If you look really fine on the bookshelf you can see that some 23:34.271 --> 23:36.671 of them have writing on the spine. 23:36.670 --> 23:40.070 Do you see what that one is? 23:40.069 --> 23:43.249 Can anybody read it? 23:43.250 --> 23:47.140 What? 23:47.140 --> 23:49.840 What science book do you think they might have had? 23:49.839 --> 23:51.539 Student: Copernicus. 23:51.539 --> 23:54.109 Prof: Copernicus, right? 23:54.109 --> 23:58.029 So astronomy; that's a telescope in the back. 23:58.029 --> 24:05.469 Okay, or over here on the wall, what's that thing? 24:05.470 --> 24:06.510 It's a clock. 24:06.509 --> 24:09.259 Why is it shaped like a piece of pie? 24:09.259 --> 24:10.619 Student: Because it has a pendulum inside. 24:10.618 --> 24:13.908 Prof: Ah, because it has a pendulum 24:13.907 --> 24:14.627 inside. 24:14.630 --> 24:18.170 So horology, making good clocks. 24:18.170 --> 24:21.270 Okay, or here, what's that thing? 24:21.269 --> 24:23.129 It's hard for you to know. 24:23.130 --> 24:23.870 Student: Solar. 24:23.869 --> 24:25.869 Prof: It's a wind gauge. 24:25.868 --> 24:29.068 It has a vane inside that it blows on -- and you can tell 24:29.068 --> 24:32.438 from how far it goes on the scale how strong the wind is. 24:32.440 --> 24:35.070 So meteorology. 24:35.068 --> 24:39.378 And back here on the pillar, what are those things for? 24:39.380 --> 24:44.120 Students: A compass. 24:44.119 --> 24:46.279 Prof: For cartography. 24:46.279 --> 24:50.559 Now what do all these things have in common that they're 24:50.555 --> 24:52.805 going to do for Charles II? 24:52.809 --> 24:54.379 Astronomy -- Student: For the 24:54.376 --> 24:54.586 records. 24:54.588 --> 24:56.398 Prof: Good clocks, meteorology, 24:56.403 --> 24:57.533 cartography, what -- 24:57.529 --> 24:59.289 <> 24:59.288 --> 25:03.598 Prof: They all have to do with navigation, 25:03.604 --> 25:06.844 with making England strong at sea. 25:06.838 --> 25:12.428 Now back here is another science, Chemistry. 25:12.430 --> 25:14.900 That doesn't seem to have anything to do with navigation. 25:14.900 --> 25:17.390 Why would Chemistry be important to Charles? 25:17.390 --> 25:19.750 Student: War. 25:19.750 --> 25:20.700 Prof: Look at it. 25:20.700 --> 25:21.430 Student: War. 25:21.430 --> 25:22.710 Prof: To make gun powder. 25:22.710 --> 25:25.480 There was a chapter about gun powder in The History of the 25:25.483 --> 25:26.413 Royal Society. 25:26.410 --> 25:29.390 Okay, and up here at the top is the motto, 25:29.390 --> 25:32.860 which is Nullius in Verba, which comes from this 25:32.859 --> 25:35.649 quote from Horace, and what it says is, 25:35.646 --> 25:38.086 "Lest you ask who leads me, 25:38.088 --> 25:40.118 in what household I lodge" (that is, 25:40.118 --> 25:44.078 what philosophy I advocate) "there is no master in 25:44.080 --> 25:47.090 whose words I am bound to take an oath. 25:47.088 --> 25:51.118 Wherever the storm forces me, there I put in as a 25:51.115 --> 25:52.285 guest." 25:52.288 --> 25:55.888 So it's the experiment, not the philosopher, 25:55.888 --> 25:58.818 that leads you to the conclusion. 25:58.818 --> 26:03.938 So Nullius in Verba is 'in the words of none.' 26:03.940 --> 26:07.380 And, in fact, the original name of The Royal 26:07.383 --> 26:11.953 Society was The Royal Society for the Improving of Natural 26:11.946 --> 26:14.266 Knowledge by Experiments. 26:14.269 --> 26:17.569 Okay, so we're going to see, as the course goes along, 26:17.568 --> 26:20.618 important experiments that really decided questions, 26:20.618 --> 26:24.168 and in fact Bacon's most important kind of experiment was 26:24.167 --> 26:28.157 one that "finally decides between two rival hypotheses, 26:28.160 --> 26:31.180 proving the one and disproving the other." 26:31.180 --> 26:33.980 So you can do all sorts of experiments and just be 26:33.983 --> 26:37.323 collecting butterflies -- no, I don't mean to insult 26:37.318 --> 26:41.198 people who collect butterflies, it's a fine thing to do. 26:41.200 --> 26:45.070 But there's something special about experiments that really 26:45.067 --> 26:47.467 are designed to answer a question. 26:47.470 --> 26:51.790 Now Bacon devised a name for such experiments, 26:51.788 --> 26:55.198 and they're based on this model, that you have a road that 26:55.196 --> 26:58.656 diverges and you need to know which way to go between these 26:58.663 --> 26:59.803 two hypotheses. 26:59.798 --> 27:03.948 What do you need, to know which way to go? 27:03.950 --> 27:08.830 You need a sign, or this was a cross that you 27:08.826 --> 27:11.706 mounted at a crossroads. 27:11.710 --> 27:15.350 So the Latin name for cross is crux. 27:15.348 --> 27:19.708 Do you see what they call the experiment? 27:19.710 --> 27:20.960 Crucial. 27:20.960 --> 27:24.980 That's the origin of the word crucial, right? 27:24.980 --> 27:27.440 It's the one that tells you which way to go. 27:27.440 --> 27:33.660 Okay, so here is Isaac Newton and he's holding something. 27:33.660 --> 27:35.890 Can you see what he's holding in his hand? 27:35.890 --> 27:38.130 Student: A candle. 27:38.130 --> 27:42.930 Prof: I'll give you a hint. 27:42.930 --> 27:44.670 It's a prism. 27:44.670 --> 27:46.120 Why is he holding a prism? 27:46.118 --> 27:50.628 Because that was his crucial experiment; 27:50.630 --> 27:53.970 and here's his diagram in that experiment with a prism in it. 27:53.970 --> 27:56.470 He called it the Experimentum Crucis, 27:56.465 --> 27:58.145 taking the word from Bacon. 27:58.150 --> 28:01.760 Okay, so light came in through a hole in the window, 28:01.756 --> 28:05.006 through a lens, and then got bent and dispersed 28:05.008 --> 28:07.128 into the different colors. 28:07.130 --> 28:11.620 So you get a spectrum here on this thing, the different 28:11.621 --> 28:12.371 colors. 28:12.368 --> 28:17.768 Now there's the question, how does the prism make color? 28:17.769 --> 28:22.039 Hooke and Descartes thought that light was a train of pulses 28:22.036 --> 28:25.576 and as it goes through something like a prism, 28:25.578 --> 28:28.738 or as it reflects from a thin layer of oil on water or 28:28.739 --> 28:32.229 something like that, that it changes the timing of 28:32.234 --> 28:35.464 the pulses and therefore changes the color. 28:35.460 --> 28:40.900 But Newton thought that the colors were pre-existing, 28:40.895 --> 28:44.655 and the prism just separates them. 28:44.660 --> 28:47.510 And this was his crucial experiment to decide between 28:47.509 --> 28:48.659 those two theories. 28:48.660 --> 28:51.790 You see what he did? 28:51.788 --> 28:57.158 He drilled a hole through the board and let through only the 28:57.157 --> 29:00.977 red light, and put a second prism there. 29:00.980 --> 29:04.670 And he wrote here, three times -- he wrote it 29:04.673 --> 29:08.873 here, and also here, and also here -- nec variat 29:08.872 --> 29:14.492 lux fracta colorem; which means "the broken 29:14.490 --> 29:19.160 light does not change its color." 29:19.160 --> 29:23.910 So this proved to Newton, at least at that time, 29:23.906 --> 29:29.056 that light is a substance, not a train of pulses. 29:29.058 --> 29:31.908 What do you think of that proof now? 29:31.910 --> 29:34.090 You think light is a substance or a train of pulses? 29:34.089 --> 29:34.659 Students: Both. 29:34.660 --> 29:35.410 Student: Neither. 29:35.410 --> 29:38.030 Prof: But at least you can see that in terms then, 29:38.029 --> 29:41.289 that was a crucial experiment, a really important experiment, 29:41.288 --> 29:44.918 and that's the kind of experiments we'll try to talk 29:44.922 --> 29:46.492 about in the course. 29:46.490 --> 29:48.970 Experiments are indispensable in Organic Chemistry. 29:48.970 --> 29:51.720 It's an empirical science based on observation, 29:51.719 --> 29:54.229 and that's why you have to take the lab. 29:54.230 --> 29:58.220 But so is logic -- that was number three and number four of 29:58.223 --> 30:01.533 the ways of knowing -- logic is important too. 30:01.528 --> 30:06.748 So believe what I tell you here only when it makes sense to you. 30:06.750 --> 30:11.190 Don't just cram it in, make sure it makes sense. 30:11.190 --> 30:16.110 But what if it doesn't? 30:16.108 --> 30:18.798 Now here's how to succeed in Chem. 30:18.797 --> 30:23.187 125, and we'll take as our model science student Samuel 30:23.194 --> 30:24.014 Pepys. 30:24.009 --> 30:28.099 How many people have heard of Samuel Pepys? 30:28.098 --> 30:30.178 Have you heard of him as a scientist? 30:30.180 --> 30:31.190 Student: I don't remember. 30:31.190 --> 30:32.290 Prof: What did you hear of him as? 30:32.288 --> 30:35.118 What do you associate with Samuel Pepys? 30:35.118 --> 30:39.238 Student: Newton-Pepys Problems. 30:39.240 --> 30:42.590 Prof: Right in this period, in the heart of the 30:42.594 --> 30:43.674 science growth. 30:43.670 --> 30:49.780 But what you know him for was his diary, which tells all about 30:49.780 --> 30:54.190 life, everyday life in Restoration London. 30:54.190 --> 30:57.480 He was actually, as a sixteen-year-old, 30:57.482 --> 31:01.472 present when Charles I was beheaded in 1649. 31:01.470 --> 31:04.110 Now what's the connection? 31:04.109 --> 31:06.549 Do you know where this is? 31:06.549 --> 31:12.859 Anybody been there? 31:12.858 --> 31:15.958 Dixwell, Goffe and Whalley Avenues, 31:15.960 --> 31:21.430 those are named for three of the 50 judges that condemned 31:21.425 --> 31:25.415 Charles I to be beheaded, and they were the only ones 31:25.424 --> 31:28.244 that lasted very long, after the Restoration, 31:28.243 --> 31:32.563 and they lasted because they fled to New England and were 31:32.557 --> 31:34.327 hidden on West Rock. 31:34.328 --> 31:38.248 All these roads are heading west toward West Rock. 31:38.250 --> 31:40.360 Okay, so that's a tie-in to the same period. 31:40.359 --> 31:41.609 But anyway, he got his B.A. 31:41.608 --> 31:45.758 in Cambridge in 1654 and a Master's in 1656. 31:45.759 --> 31:48.279 And he got a good job, he became Clerk of the Acts for 31:48.275 --> 31:50.705 the Navy Board, which meant he was the guy that 31:50.709 --> 31:52.849 purchased everything for the Royal Navy, 31:52.848 --> 31:55.238 all the rope, all the tar, 31:55.239 --> 31:57.819 all the lumber and so on. 31:57.818 --> 32:01.758 And on July Fourth, 1662 -- it's the fourth of July 32:01.760 --> 32:06.570 but it's more than 100 years before that became relevant -- 32:06.568 --> 32:09.058 he writes in his diary, "By and by comes 32:09.060 --> 32:10.870 Mr. Cooper, mate of the Royall 32:10.874 --> 32:13.334 Charles, of whom I intend to learn 32:13.327 --> 32:15.847 mathematiques, and do begin with him to-day, 32:15.849 --> 32:18.509 he being a very able man… After an hour's 32:18.509 --> 32:22.019 being with him at arithmetique (my first attempt being to learn 32:22.016 --> 32:24.696 the multiplication-table); we then parted till 32:24.702 --> 32:25.492 tomorrow." 32:25.490 --> 32:29.540 So here was the guy doing all the purchasing for the Royal 32:29.537 --> 32:32.237 Navy and he didn't know multiplication, 32:32.236 --> 32:33.866 let alone division. 32:33.869 --> 32:35.369 But he worked hard at it. 32:35.368 --> 32:39.638 July ninth, five days later: He's "Up by four o'clock, 32:39.640 --> 32:41.780 and at my multiplicacion-table hard, 32:41.779 --> 32:44.489 which is all the trouble I meet withal in arithmetique." 32:44.490 --> 32:47.760 He can do the other things pretty well. 32:47.759 --> 32:50.559 July eleven: "Up by four o'clock and 32:50.558 --> 32:54.758 hard at my multiplicacion-table, which I am now almost master 32:54.759 --> 32:55.669 of." 32:55.670 --> 32:58.800 Christmas -- so six months later: "…so to my 32:58.799 --> 33:01.149 office, practicing arithmetique alone 33:01.148 --> 33:04.578 and making an end of last night's book with great content 33:04.584 --> 33:08.454 till eleven at night and so home to supper and to bed." 33:08.450 --> 33:14.400 Or a year later -- so he was motivated and he was diligent; 33:14.403 --> 33:15.843 that's good. 33:15.838 --> 33:17.148 A year later, on a Sunday: 33:17.153 --> 33:20.253 "…I below by myself looking over my arithmetique 33:20.252 --> 33:21.622 books and timber rule. 33:21.618 --> 33:24.748 So my wife arose anon and she and I all the afternoon at 33:24.746 --> 33:27.466 arithmetique," * "and 33:27.473 --> 33:31.783 she has come to do Addition, Subtraction and Multiplicacion 33:31.778 --> 33:34.788 very well, and so I purpose not to trouble 33:34.785 --> 33:37.015 her yet with Division…" 33:37.018 --> 33:37.608 Right? 33:37.609 --> 33:38.609 > 33:38.608 --> 33:43.688 So he worked with a study partner, and that's crucial. 33:43.690 --> 33:48.460 And Isaac Newton -- does anybody recognize this book? 33:48.460 --> 33:49.370 Student: Yes, sure. 33:49.369 --> 33:50.109 Prof: Right? 33:50.108 --> 33:52.648 The Mathematical Principles of Science, of Natural 33:52.648 --> 33:53.478 Philosophy. 33:53.480 --> 33:59.080 But there's an interesting thing on the title page. 33:59.078 --> 34:03.508 Samuel Pepys is the one who gave permission to publish that 34:03.505 --> 34:07.925 book, because he was the president of The Royal Society. 34:07.930 --> 34:13.090 Now six years later Pepys encountered a problem with dice. 34:13.090 --> 34:16.240 The reason was he went to coffee shops every night for 34:16.242 --> 34:19.732 dinner and they'd gamble, and people proposed various 34:19.730 --> 34:22.080 kinds of bets, and he couldn't figure out this 34:22.083 --> 34:25.633 one, so he wrote Newton for help. 34:25.630 --> 34:28.480 So this was the problem that he wrote to Newton, 34:28.481 --> 34:30.181 twenty-second of November. 34:30.179 --> 34:34.609 So A has six dice in a box, and he has to throw a Six by 34:34.610 --> 34:38.110 throwing it; B has 12 dice and he has to 34:38.114 --> 34:42.074 fling two Sixes; and C has 18 Dice but he has to 34:42.070 --> 34:43.660 get 3 Sixes to win. 34:43.659 --> 34:46.259 The question, "Whether B and C have not 34:46.260 --> 34:48.860 as easy a Taske at A, at even luck?" 34:48.860 --> 34:50.620 That is, if the dice aren't loaded or anything, 34:50.621 --> 34:51.581 who has the better bet? 34:51.579 --> 34:54.239 > 34:54.239 --> 34:59.909 How many people think that it's the same? 34:59.909 --> 35:01.649 Don't be shy. 35:01.650 --> 35:05.640 How many think it's A? 35:05.639 --> 35:08.249 How many think B? 35:08.250 --> 35:11.290 How many think C? 35:11.289 --> 35:14.649 How many don't really have any opinion at all? 35:14.650 --> 35:16.430 Good, that wins. 35:16.429 --> 35:19.639 Okay, so he wrote this letter to try to get help on his bets 35:19.643 --> 35:21.643 from Newton, and Newton replied, 35:21.641 --> 35:24.681 four days later, "What is the expectation 35:24.681 --> 35:27.531 or hope of A to throw every time one six, 35:27.530 --> 35:29.680 at least, with six dyes?" 35:29.679 --> 35:31.719 So you get two sixes you still win; 35:31.719 --> 35:34.089 that wasn't clear in the original statement. 35:34.090 --> 35:37.090 So he says, "If we formulate the question that way, 35:37.094 --> 35:39.994 it appears by an easy computation that the expectation 35:39.990 --> 35:44.550 of A is greater than B or C; that is, the task of A is the 35:44.554 --> 35:46.014 easiest." 35:46.010 --> 35:48.110 There's the answer. 35:48.110 --> 35:51.740 So Pepys replied on the sixth of December: "You give it 35:51.740 --> 35:54.080 in favour of the Expectations of A, 35:54.079 --> 35:58.989 & this (as you say) by an easy Computation. 35:58.989 --> 36:03.559 But yet I must not pretend to soe much Conversation with 36:03.556 --> 36:06.126 Numbers, as presently to comprehend as I 36:06.134 --> 36:08.354 ought to doe, all the force of that wch you 36:08.347 --> 36:10.577 are pleas'd to assigne for the Reason of it, 36:10.579 --> 36:14.119 relating to their having or not having the Benefit of all their 36:14.117 --> 36:15.027 Chances." 36:15.030 --> 36:22.390 So he wasn't ashamed to admit that he didn't really understand 36:22.387 --> 36:24.797 -- that's crucial. 36:24.800 --> 36:27.720 "And therefore, were it not for the trouble it 36:27.722 --> 36:30.642 must have cost you, I could have wished for a sight 36:30.643 --> 36:32.693 of the very Computation." 36:32.690 --> 36:35.240 Can you show me how to figure it out? 36:35.239 --> 36:39.289 And he wanted that because somebody might change the terms 36:39.289 --> 36:42.059 of the bet and then he wouldn't know. 36:42.059 --> 36:43.309 He wanted really to understand. 36:43.309 --> 36:46.389 He insisted on proof. 36:46.389 --> 36:49.299 So this is two of the pages from Newton's correspondence of 36:49.295 --> 36:51.295 the letter that he wrote in response, 36:51.300 --> 36:55.430 and you can see that Pepys certainly got more than he had 36:55.429 --> 36:56.609 bargained for. 36:56.610 --> 36:59.290 "So to compute this I set down the following progressions 36:59.286 --> 37:00.116 of numbers." 37:00.119 --> 37:04.139 So you can go through all this and you get complicated 37:04.143 --> 37:09.293 quotients here, and it turns out that A has 37:09.293 --> 37:16.613 31,031 chances out of 46,656, or 0.6651 chance of winning, 37:16.608 --> 37:22.258 and B has this, which is 0.6187; 37:22.260 --> 37:25.170 A wins. 37:25.170 --> 37:29.950 So is Pepys satisfied with this? 37:29.949 --> 37:33.269 Pepys writes back and he says, "Why?" 37:33.271 --> 37:33.851 Right? 37:33.849 --> 37:39.969 "I cannot bear the Thought of being made Master of a Jewell 37:39.974 --> 37:42.994 I know not how to wear." 37:42.989 --> 37:46.429 So he's willing to swallow his pride to search for really solid 37:46.431 --> 37:47.321 understanding. 37:47.320 --> 37:52.880 Now compare this with a comment we got at an end-of-semester 37:52.880 --> 37:56.180 evaluation in January a year ago. 37:56.179 --> 37:58.779 "I never went to his office hours for help because I 37:58.784 --> 38:00.744 felt like he would make me feel stupid, 38:00.739 --> 38:03.059 because he's superior to me in chemistry." 38:03.059 --> 38:05.129 I hope I'm superior to you in chemistry. 38:05.130 --> 38:06.120 > 38:06.119 --> 38:09.299 I'm not superior as a person, but I hope I'm superior in 38:09.295 --> 38:09.985 chemistry. 38:09.989 --> 38:12.829 You're paying me the big bucks because of that. 38:12.829 --> 38:18.599 So swallow your pride and ask someone for help. 38:18.599 --> 38:19.489 Follow Pepys. 38:19.489 --> 38:23.159 So read "Pepys and Newton" and get together to 38:23.155 --> 38:27.325 do problems for Monday, and contribute to the Wiki when 38:27.329 --> 38:29.139 you're asked to do so. 38:29.139 --> 38:30.339 So here are problems. 38:30.340 --> 38:33.240 For Friday the problems are optional but very helpful. 38:33.239 --> 38:36.859 One is find out which two class members have the rooms nearest 38:36.856 --> 38:40.116 you so that you can maybe use them as study partners. 38:40.119 --> 38:42.529 You don't have to use them, use anybody, 38:42.530 --> 38:45.250 but use someone, don't try to go it alone. 38:45.250 --> 38:45.460 Two. 38:45.460 --> 38:48.470 What are the three most common items of advice from course 38:48.474 --> 38:49.114 veterans? 38:49.110 --> 38:52.110 So if you click there, or go to the webpage, 38:52.108 --> 38:57.438 you can get anonymous advice; I was careful to make sure it's 38:57.443 --> 38:58.573 anonymous. 38:58.570 --> 39:02.390 So you can get all -- much of it is contradictory, 39:02.389 --> 39:05.229 so your job is to look through it and try to get some idea of 39:05.233 --> 39:07.513 what they're telling you that's worth knowing. 39:07.510 --> 39:10.010 For Monday there are problems from that webpage, 39:10.005 --> 39:11.755 "Pepys & Newton." 39:11.760 --> 39:15.280 And let me tell you that you better get together with other 39:15.275 --> 39:18.055 people to do it, because there's a lot of stuff 39:18.063 --> 39:18.673 there. 39:18.670 --> 39:21.940 So get together in a group, parcel out who works on what, 39:21.940 --> 39:23.870 discuss what went on and so on. 39:23.869 --> 39:27.569 And then for a week from Friday there's stuff about drawing 39:27.570 --> 39:30.320 Lewis Structures, from another webpage about 39:30.315 --> 39:31.715 functional groups. 39:31.719 --> 39:35.479 So we'll get to that later, I just wanted you to know 39:35.483 --> 39:36.863 what's coming up. 39:36.860 --> 39:39.580 Incidentally, this thing about the problems 39:39.577 --> 39:43.067 set that has to do with the mathematics that Newton and 39:43.072 --> 39:47.762 Pepys were working on there, has to do with isotope ratios. 39:47.760 --> 39:51.910 You know, chlorine has a funny atomic weight. 39:51.909 --> 39:52.949 Why? 39:52.949 --> 39:55.009 What is the atomic weight, does anybody know? 39:55.010 --> 39:56.370 Student: 35.5. 39:56.369 --> 39:57.819 Prof: Thirty-five and a half. 39:57.820 --> 40:00.530 Why a half? 40:00.530 --> 40:05.310 Most of the elements are pretty near integers. 40:05.309 --> 40:08.189 It's because it's a mixture of isotopes. 40:08.190 --> 40:12.930 It's a quarter of one isotope and three-quarters of the other, 40:12.929 --> 40:16.349 and the average is thirty-five and a half; 40:16.349 --> 40:19.459 thirty-five and thirty-seven. 40:19.460 --> 40:24.040 But in fact it depends on where you get chlorine from, 40:24.041 --> 40:25.771 what the ratio is. 40:25.768 --> 40:29.488 There's thirty-five and a half for a standard atomic weight, 40:29.494 --> 40:33.224 but it ranges quite a bit, depending on where you get it. 40:33.219 --> 40:37.789 So by measuring these ratios, which is a lot like these odds 40:37.788 --> 40:41.268 in the betting, you can tell where things came 40:41.273 --> 40:41.973 from. 40:41.969 --> 40:45.089 You can tell where hydrocarbons came from sometimes that way. 40:45.090 --> 40:46.650 And those are the problems that you have to deal with. 40:46.650 --> 40:49.970 So it's not really very, very relevant to the course as 40:49.969 --> 40:53.599 a whole, but it's relevant to the Pepys and Newton thing and 40:53.596 --> 40:55.006 it's a fun problem. 40:55.010 --> 40:56.680 So that's what you've got to do for Monday. 40:56.679 --> 40:59.779 Okay, and here are the assignments. 40:59.780 --> 41:01.190 I emailed all these people. 41:01.190 --> 41:04.210 I hope you're here, and that you picked up on what 41:04.213 --> 41:07.863 we talked about today so that you can improve the Wikis from 41:07.855 --> 41:08.715 last year. 41:08.719 --> 41:12.429 Last year people developed their Wikis from scratch. 41:12.429 --> 41:16.219 This time -- which is a very valuable thing to do. 41:16.219 --> 41:19.989 So I was torn this year as to whether to have you do them from 41:19.992 --> 41:22.532 scratch or whether to modify last year. 41:22.530 --> 41:26.130 I figured modifying last year is better because then you have 41:26.130 --> 41:29.610 something to read earlier on, for those who are not working 41:29.610 --> 41:30.870 on developing it. 41:30.869 --> 41:34.429 So anyhow, but the hope is -- so if you modify it -- 41:34.429 --> 41:35.989 it has to be something significant, 41:35.989 --> 41:38.259 not put a comma in or something like that, 41:38.260 --> 41:41.090 but add something useful to understanding. 41:41.090 --> 41:45.170 If you do it within thirty-six hours, you get two points, 41:45.166 --> 41:49.386 and if what you do is really good, you get three points. 41:49.389 --> 41:52.129 So you go to that page and you click on those things and then 41:52.132 --> 41:55.062 you can read what -- or you can either modify them or read it; 41:55.059 --> 41:56.429 it's a Wiki. 41:56.429 --> 41:58.809 Now, we come to the question that we'll address more. 41:58.809 --> 42:01.529 We have another five minutes here. 42:01.530 --> 42:04.510 The question we're really dealing with now, 42:04.505 --> 42:06.695 having seen how to work in Chem. 42:06.702 --> 42:09.682 125, is are there atoms and molecules; 42:09.679 --> 42:12.869 how do you know? 42:12.869 --> 42:15.949 And what force holds them together? 42:15.949 --> 42:20.179 Because if we knew that they're real, and we knew what force 42:20.184 --> 42:23.634 held them together, then in principle we might be 42:23.630 --> 42:26.000 able to calculate everything. 42:26.000 --> 42:29.570 So it would all be theory. 42:29.570 --> 42:36.470 So is it springs that hold atoms together? 42:36.469 --> 42:39.549 So Robert Boyle -- notice he's right at that time, 42:39.550 --> 42:42.540 1627 to 1691, and he's the oldest person 42:42.539 --> 42:46.679 that's on the Honor Roll outside the building here, 42:46.679 --> 42:52.969 he's over that way -- so Robert Boyle wrote this first important 42:52.965 --> 42:56.655 book in chemistry, New Experiments 42:56.655 --> 43:00.905 Physico-Mechanical: Touching the Spring of 43:00.914 --> 43:01.894 Air. 43:01.889 --> 43:06.609 So you know Boyle's Law, how pressure and volume change, 43:06.612 --> 43:10.222 that air in a piston acts like a spring. 43:10.219 --> 43:15.139 So PV is a constant; that's Boyle's Law. 43:15.139 --> 43:20.039 So he developed this science on the basis of a new instrument, 43:20.041 --> 43:23.901 the pneumatical engine, which was built by Robert 43:23.898 --> 43:26.228 Hooke, the guy we quoted. 43:26.230 --> 43:31.160 And there's a picture of the air pump here with that crank on 43:31.161 --> 43:35.601 it, and so on to pump things in or out of that bulb. 43:35.599 --> 43:39.859 Now a couple of years later Hooke wrote this book, 43:39.860 --> 43:42.990 Lectures, De Potentia Restitutiva, 43:42.990 --> 43:46.470 or of Spring, explaining the power of 43:46.469 --> 43:48.469 springing bodies. 43:48.469 --> 43:50.409 And this is the beginning of that book. 43:50.409 --> 43:54.449 "The Theory of Springs, though attempted by divers 43:54.451 --> 43:58.571 eminent Mathematicians of this Age has hitherto not been 43:58.568 --> 44:00.138 Published by any. 44:00.139 --> 44:03.709 It is now about eighteen years since I first found it out, 44:03.710 --> 44:08.370 but designing to apply it to some particular use, 44:08.369 --> 44:11.549 I omitted the publishing thereof." 44:11.550 --> 44:14.660 So he kept it secret so no one would steal the idea. 44:14.659 --> 44:21.039 What did he hope to do with a spring, a really important 44:21.043 --> 44:26.153 technology that he could do with a spring? 44:26.150 --> 44:30.090 There was a coil in the spring that he depended on. 44:30.090 --> 44:30.970 Student: Flying. 44:30.969 --> 44:33.519 Student: Pendulum clock. 44:33.518 --> 44:35.848 Prof: A new kind of clock, one that could work 44:35.846 --> 44:36.916 better for navigation. 44:36.920 --> 44:40.250 It was his spring that actually allowed Harrison, 44:40.246 --> 44:43.506 100 years later, to win the contest about making 44:43.505 --> 44:46.385 an accurate clock; some of you must know that 44:46.393 --> 44:46.763 story. 44:46.760 --> 44:49.360 So anyhow he had been hiding this so it wouldn't be stolen. 44:49.360 --> 44:53.570 In fact, it was stolen by Huygens. 44:53.570 --> 44:56.890 So "about three years since His Majesty was pleased to 44:56.885 --> 44:59.625 see the experiment that made out this theory, 44:59.630 --> 45:04.990 tried at White Hall, and also my spring watch. 45:04.989 --> 45:09.259 About two years since I printed the theory in an anagram at the 45:09.262 --> 45:12.572 end of my book on the description of helioscopes, 45:12.570 --> 45:13.950 viz." this. 45:13.949 --> 45:18.209 So this is what he published at the end of this book on 45:18.206 --> 45:23.786 helioscopes, and that is an anagram of how 45:23.791 --> 45:27.401 springs work, so that later he could prove 45:27.402 --> 45:29.322 that he knew it, if needs be, 45:29.318 --> 45:33.108 but no one could steal it in the meantime. 45:33.110 --> 45:36.760 And if you unscramble it, it's "Ut tensio sic 45:36.757 --> 45:39.397 vis; that is, the power of any 45:39.396 --> 45:43.966 spring is in the same proportion with the tension thereof. 45:43.969 --> 45:47.809 That is, if one power stretch or bend at one space, 45:47.806 --> 45:51.486 two will stress at two, three will bend at three, 45:51.490 --> 45:53.410 and so forward." 45:53.409 --> 45:54.749 So here's his figure that shows that. 45:54.750 --> 45:56.960 That's Hooke's Law, the force law. 45:56.960 --> 46:01.660 The force is proportional to the distortion. 46:01.659 --> 46:04.509 So here's his figure, and he's got plots of it here. 46:04.510 --> 46:09.170 Ut tensio (as the extension) sic vis (so 46:09.166 --> 46:10.306 the force). 46:10.309 --> 46:14.599 So it's linear, the force is how much you 46:14.603 --> 46:16.003 stretch it. 46:16.000 --> 46:18.880 And he has lots of different kinds of springs that do that. 46:18.880 --> 46:22.010 Here's this clock kind of spring, a coil spring, 46:22.005 --> 46:23.665 just stretching a wire. 46:23.670 --> 46:26.410 So the force is proportional to the extension. 46:26.409 --> 46:29.739 Or another way of saying it is, "The potential energy is 46:29.735 --> 46:32.615 proportional to the square of the extension." 46:32.619 --> 46:34.429 So it's a parabola. 46:34.429 --> 46:38.819 So that's Hooke's Law, and that's where we'll take up 46:38.824 --> 46:39.844 next time. 46:39.840 --> 46:45.000