WEBVTT 00:11.170 --> 00:14.280 Professor Mark Saltzman: This is a course, 00:14.283 --> 00:17.883 a version of which I've taught almost every year for the last 00:17.876 --> 00:21.226 twenty years and it evolves a little bit every year. 00:21.230 --> 00:23.500 I think I get a little bit better at it, 00:23.496 --> 00:27.096 so hopefully you'll get some advantage from that experience. 00:27.100 --> 00:30.390 But the idea is to try to present to you what's exciting 00:30.387 --> 00:34.237 about Biomedical Engineering, the ways that one can take 00:34.236 --> 00:38.376 science and mathematics and apply that to improve human 00:38.382 --> 00:40.592 health. I'm not working alone here, 00:40.589 --> 00:43.629 but we have three teaching fellows who are affiliated with 00:43.627 --> 00:45.917 the course, two of which are here today. 00:45.920 --> 00:50.010 Yen Cu is back there, Yen raise your hand higher so 00:50.006 --> 00:53.306 everyone can see. Yen worked on the course last 00:53.314 --> 00:56.764 year and she's the senior of the teaching fellows that are 00:56.762 --> 01:01.452 working on the course this year. Serge Kobsa is in the back and 01:01.450 --> 01:04.620 he'll be the second teaching fellow. 01:04.620 --> 01:08.130 I should mention that Yen is a PhD student in Biomedical 01:08.129 --> 01:11.769 Engineering and Serge is an M.D./PhD student who's getting 01:11.765 --> 01:14.185 his PhD in Biomedical Engineering. 01:14.189 --> 01:18.199 The third teaching fellow couldn't make it today, 01:18.198 --> 01:23.038 his name is Michael Look and I'll introduce him to you when 01:23.043 --> 01:27.543 he's available. This is the goal for my 01:27.537 --> 01:32.057 first lecture today, to try to answer these 01:32.060 --> 01:35.660 questions. You might have already noticed 01:35.663 --> 01:40.293 that I'm using the classes V2 server so the syllabus is there, 01:40.290 --> 01:42.280 I'm going to go over the syllabus a little bit later, 01:42.278 --> 01:43.768 but the syllabus is available online. 01:43.769 --> 01:47.479 The first reading is available online and I'll talk more about 01:47.484 --> 01:51.264 the readings when I get to that portion of the lecture here. 01:51.260 --> 01:54.440 I'm going to post PowerPoints for all the lectures, 01:54.436 --> 01:58.056 hopefully at least the day before the lecture takes place, 01:58.057 --> 02:01.807 so I posted this last night. Some students find that they 02:01.812 --> 02:05.382 benefit from printing out the PowerPoints and they can just 02:05.381 --> 02:09.071 take their notes along with the slides as I go and that's one 02:09.072 --> 02:12.242 way to do it, but feel free to do it whatever 02:12.242 --> 02:15.572 way works for you, but those should be available. 02:15.569 --> 02:18.229 The questions I want to try to answer today are what is 02:18.225 --> 02:21.245 Biomedical Engineering? So why would you be interested 02:21.246 --> 02:24.496 in spending a semester learning about this subject? 02:24.500 --> 02:29.160 I'll talk about who will benefit from the course and a 02:29.164 --> 02:34.094 little bit about sort of the detailed subject matter that 02:34.093 --> 02:38.233 we'll cover in the course of this semester. 02:38.229 --> 02:41.679 To answer the question what is Biomedical Engineering, 02:41.683 --> 02:45.533 we're going to spend time on that today and we'll spend time 02:45.527 --> 02:48.087 on Thursday, and I want to approach it from 02:48.085 --> 02:51.445 a couple of different angles. One is by just showing you 02:51.452 --> 02:55.162 a series of pictures which you might recognize and talk about 02:55.158 --> 02:58.368 why this is an example of Biomedical Engineering. 02:58.370 --> 03:02.410 This is one picture that probably you all know what it is 03:02.412 --> 03:05.952 when you see it, it's a familiar looking image. 03:05.949 --> 03:08.739 It's something that probably we all have some personal 03:08.735 --> 03:10.045 experience with, right? 03:10.050 --> 03:13.740 This is a chest x-ray that would be taken in your doctor's 03:13.738 --> 03:16.908 office, for example, or a radiologist's office. 03:16.909 --> 03:20.719 And it is a good example of Biomedical Engineering and that 03:20.718 --> 03:24.858 it takes a physical principle, that is how do x-rays interact 03:24.861 --> 03:28.741 with the tissues of your body, and it uses that physics, 03:28.740 --> 03:32.060 that physical principle to develop a picture of what's 03:32.059 --> 03:34.689 inside your body, so to look inside and see 03:34.690 --> 03:38.010 things that you couldn't see without this device. 03:38.009 --> 03:40.899 And you'll recognize some of the parts of the image, 03:40.895 --> 03:44.595 you can see the ribcage here, the bones, you can see the 03:44.598 --> 03:47.968 heart is this large bright object down here. 03:47.970 --> 03:52.220 If your - have good eyesight from the distance that you're at 03:52.216 --> 03:56.456 you can see the vessels leading out of the heart and into the 03:56.462 --> 03:59.612 lungs, and the lungs are these darker 03:59.612 --> 04:03.412 spaces within the ribcage. Physicians over the years 04:03.412 --> 04:06.292 of having this instrument have learned how to be very 04:06.286 --> 04:09.546 sophisticated about looking at these pictures and diagnosing 04:09.547 --> 04:12.087 when something is wrong inside the chest, 04:12.090 --> 04:15.080 for example. So this is an example of 04:15.079 --> 04:17.989 Biomedical Engineering, one that is well integrated 04:17.994 --> 04:21.384 into our society to the point that we've probably all got a 04:21.376 --> 04:23.996 picture like this somewhere in our past, 04:24.000 --> 04:29.780 and where we understand the physical principles that allow 04:29.779 --> 04:32.339 us to use it. We've gotten, 04:32.338 --> 04:35.878 over the last two decades in particular, very sophisticated 04:35.881 --> 04:39.611 about taking pictures inside the body allowing doctors to look 04:39.608 --> 04:42.788 inside the body and predict things about our internal 04:42.785 --> 04:46.505 physiology that they couldn't predict just by looking at us or 04:46.511 --> 04:50.651 putting their hands on us. This image on the top here is 04:50.653 --> 04:54.663 another example of an imaging technique, this is a Positron 04:54.660 --> 04:57.190 Emission Tomograph, or PET image, 04:57.194 --> 05:01.484 and it's taken by using radionuclides and injecting them 05:01.483 --> 05:04.083 into you, so radioactive chemicals that 05:04.083 --> 05:07.473 interact with tissues in your body in a specific way and you 05:07.466 --> 05:09.986 can where those radioactive chemicals go. 05:09.990 --> 05:13.400 It allows us to look not just at the anatomy of what's going 05:13.400 --> 05:15.770 on inside your body like an x-ray does, 05:15.769 --> 05:19.849 but to look at the chemistry, the biochemistry of what's 05:19.852 --> 05:24.382 happening inside a particular organ or tissue in your body. 05:24.379 --> 05:27.499 In this case, these are pictures of the brain 05:27.500 --> 05:30.550 and this has been an exceptionally important 05:30.550 --> 05:34.950 technique in understanding how molecules like neurotransmitters 05:34.948 --> 05:39.128 affect disease and how they change in certain disease states 05:39.133 --> 05:42.393 in people, and we'll talk about this as 05:42.390 --> 05:46.280 another example of Biomedical Engineering, this advanced 05:46.280 --> 05:49.180 method is for imaging inside the body. 05:49.180 --> 05:52.440 Well this third picture you can't probably see too much 05:52.440 --> 05:55.420 about but you probably recognize what it is, right? 05:55.420 --> 06:00.790 Where was this picture taken? What kind of a space was it 06:00.793 --> 06:01.213 taken in? 06:04.329 --> 06:05.419 Student: [inaudible]Professor 06:05.423 --> 06:06.303 Mark Saltzman: Somebody said OR or 06:06.303 --> 06:08.433 operating room and that's right, this is a picture in an 06:08.432 --> 06:10.982 operating room, and operating rooms if you went 06:10.976 --> 06:14.296 into any operating room around the country you would see lots 06:14.295 --> 06:17.775 of examples of instruments that are used to help surgeons, 06:17.779 --> 06:22.579 anesthesiologists to keep the patient alive and healthy during 06:22.582 --> 06:26.282 the course of a surgery. This particular one down 06:26.284 --> 06:29.834 here, this portion here is a heart/lung machine and this is a 06:29.831 --> 06:33.321 machine that can take over the function of a patient's heart 06:33.318 --> 06:36.918 and lungs during the period when they're undergoing open heart 06:36.923 --> 06:39.173 surgery, for example. 06:39.170 --> 06:42.650 If they're having a coronary artery bypass or they're having 06:42.651 --> 06:45.741 a heart transplant, then there's some period at 06:45.735 --> 06:49.625 which their normal heart - their heart is stopped and this 06:49.629 --> 06:52.909 machine assumes the functions of their heart. 06:52.910 --> 06:55.060 And this is, I think, an obvious example of 06:55.055 --> 06:57.605 Biomedical Engineering, building a machine that can 06:57.610 --> 07:00.880 replace the function of one of your organs even temporarily, 07:00.879 --> 07:05.219 for example, during an operation. 07:05.220 --> 07:08.130 This is another familiar picture, I purposely picked one 07:08.125 --> 07:10.785 that looked sort of old fashioned compared to the usual 07:10.785 --> 07:13.085 way you see this, which might be on the nightly 07:13.087 --> 07:14.697 news. You see a bleep going across 07:14.697 --> 07:17.487 the screen to indicate that they've got their finger on the 07:17.489 --> 07:20.179 pulse of what's happening, or you see it in TV shows like 07:20.184 --> 07:21.874 ER. You see these images on 07:21.873 --> 07:26.103 computer screens all the time; it's an example of an EKG or 07:26.100 --> 07:30.380 ECG, an electrocardiograph. It's a machine that also looks 07:30.382 --> 07:33.282 inside your body, but looks inside in a different 07:33.283 --> 07:36.343 kind of way. Rather than by forming an image 07:36.339 --> 07:40.569 or a picture you put electrodes on the surface of the body and 07:40.569 --> 07:45.009 measure the electrical potential as a function of position on the 07:45.006 --> 07:47.236 body. It turns out the electrical 07:47.239 --> 07:50.599 potential or electricity that you can measure on the surface 07:50.603 --> 07:54.253 of the body reflects things that are happening deeper inside like 07:54.252 --> 07:57.682 the beating of your heart. If you put the electrodes in 07:57.679 --> 08:01.119 the right position and you measure in the right way you can 08:01.117 --> 08:04.727 detect the electrical activity of the heart and record it on a 08:04.732 --> 08:07.402 strip recorder like this one shown here, 08:07.400 --> 08:11.620 or display it on a computer. So this is another example of 08:11.620 --> 08:16.000 Biomedical Engineering where you can look at the function of a 08:15.996 --> 08:20.366 heart in a living person and a physician who is experienced at 08:20.371 --> 08:23.821 looking at these, and a machine that works well, 08:23.824 --> 08:27.454 with those two things you can diagnose a lot of things that 08:27.447 --> 08:31.317 are happening inside of a heart and we'll talk about that about 08:31.320 --> 08:35.540 halfway through the course. This picture might be less 08:35.543 --> 08:40.213 familiar to you but you probably all know that we have developed 08:40.211 --> 08:44.731 over the last 100 years or so the ability to take cells out of 08:44.732 --> 08:47.372 a person, or cells out of an animal, 08:47.368 --> 08:50.938 and keep those isolated cells alive in culture for extended 08:50.935 --> 08:53.755 periods of time: this technology is called cell 08:53.764 --> 08:56.614 culture technology. We're going to spend quite of 08:56.610 --> 08:59.260 bit of time talking about it during the third week of the 08:59.257 --> 09:01.737 course. By taking cells from the skin, 09:01.742 --> 09:04.362 for example, or cells from your blood or 09:04.357 --> 09:08.647 cells from the bone marrow and keeping them alive in culture, 09:08.649 --> 09:12.609 we've been able to study how human cells work and learn a lot 09:12.614 --> 09:15.394 about the functioning of human organism. 09:15.389 --> 09:18.999 We've also learned how to not only keep cells alive, 09:19.001 --> 09:23.251 but in certain cases make them replicate outside the body, 09:23.250 --> 09:27.290 so maybe you could take a few skin cells and keep them in 09:27.290 --> 09:31.480 culture in the right way and replicate them so that you get 09:31.475 --> 09:35.655 many millions of skin cells after several weeks or so. 09:35.659 --> 09:39.809 Now one of the new technologies that's evolving, 09:39.806 --> 09:45.006 that we're going to talk about in the last half of the course, 09:45.009 --> 09:49.619 is taking cells that have been propagated in this way outside 09:49.622 --> 09:53.622 the body and encouraging them to form new tissues. 09:53.620 --> 09:57.510 This is one example of that: this is actually artificial 09:57.505 --> 09:59.965 skin. It's in this Petri dish. 09:59.970 --> 10:03.120 Here is a thin membrane, it's a polymer scaffold, 10:03.120 --> 10:07.060 and on that polymer scaffold scientists have placed some skin 10:07.058 --> 10:09.748 cells and they've allowed it to grow. 10:09.750 --> 10:13.100 And if you maintained it in the right way, this polymer scaffold 10:13.098 --> 10:15.808 together with the skin cells will grow into skin. 10:15.809 --> 10:20.069 And you can use this tissue engineered skin to treat a 10:20.074 --> 10:23.494 patient who's had severe burns, for example, 10:23.491 --> 10:26.921 or a diabetic who's developed ulcers that won't heal. 10:26.919 --> 10:30.729 So this is an example of a technology that's just emerging 10:30.733 --> 10:34.683 now, it's certainly going to impact you in your lifetime and 10:34.680 --> 10:37.960 we'll talk about how it works and what the current 10:37.959 --> 10:43.639 state-of-the-art is there. This device held here is 10:43.644 --> 10:50.864 really made of mainly plastic and a little bit of metal. 10:50.860 --> 10:54.360 It's a fully implantable artificial heart, 10:54.361 --> 10:59.401 and it was introduced about seven or eight years ago now. 10:59.399 --> 11:03.469 It was implanted into the first patient, a gentleman in 11:03.465 --> 11:07.905 Kentucky, and he stayed alive for a period of time with this 11:07.906 --> 11:12.096 device replacing his heart. Development of an artificial 11:12.096 --> 11:15.806 heart, again another example of Biomedical Engineering, 11:15.809 --> 11:19.539 is something that people have been trying to accomplish for 11:19.542 --> 11:23.082 decades now, and this is the closest that we've come and 11:23.082 --> 11:26.562 there are many advantages of this particular artificial 11:26.557 --> 11:28.957 heart. And it's important innovation 11:28.960 --> 11:32.280 in several different ways and we're going to talk about this 11:32.277 --> 11:34.917 whole science of building artificial organs, 11:34.919 --> 11:39.559 devices that are made out of totally synthetic components to 11:39.555 --> 11:43.165 replace the function of your natural organs, 11:43.169 --> 11:48.099 and the artificial heart is a good example of that. 11:48.100 --> 11:53.860 This picture on the bottom here is really just a series of 11:53.862 --> 11:56.272 colored dots. Some are yellow, 11:56.266 --> 11:58.606 some are red, and some are green - does 11:58.611 --> 12:02.671 anybody know what this is? Have you seen pictures like 12:02.674 --> 12:05.434 this? It's an example of a technology 12:05.430 --> 12:09.640 called a gene chip that allows you to, on each one of these 12:09.641 --> 12:14.181 spots there is DNA for example, that's specific for a 12:14.180 --> 12:19.510 particular gene in your genome, in the human genome for 12:19.505 --> 12:22.845 example. By incubating a small sample of 12:22.851 --> 12:26.281 fluid from a patient on a gene chip like this, 12:26.279 --> 12:30.119 where every one of these dots represents a different gene, 12:30.118 --> 12:34.088 you can see by looking at the pattern of colors on this chip 12:34.091 --> 12:38.131 which genes are being expressed and which genes are not being 12:38.132 --> 12:41.232 expressed in that particular individual. 12:41.230 --> 12:45.200 So it lets you do a profile of not just the genes that you 12:45.198 --> 12:48.748 possess, for example, but what genes are actually 12:48.751 --> 12:52.871 being used to make proteins in the cells that surround the 12:52.872 --> 12:57.592 fluid where this was collected. So this has been a remarkable 12:57.586 --> 12:59.846 innovation. It's another example of 12:59.849 --> 13:02.739 Biomedical Engineering technology that allows us to 13:02.738 --> 13:05.568 look at what's happening inside an individual, 13:05.570 --> 13:08.540 a patient, in a totally different way than we were 13:08.535 --> 13:11.105 before. By looking to see not just what 13:11.113 --> 13:14.923 genes you carry but what genes are being used at particular 13:14.917 --> 13:18.287 times in your life. This is mainly a research tool 13:18.293 --> 13:22.423 now, but there's lots of reasons to believe that this is going to 13:22.417 --> 13:26.217 change the way that physicians practice medicine by allowing 13:26.219 --> 13:30.019 them to diagnose or predict what's going to happen to you in 13:30.021 --> 13:34.261 ways that they can't currently. And so we'll talk about 13:34.264 --> 13:37.384 technologies like this, where they're at, 13:37.384 --> 13:41.754 what the scientific basis of it is, and how they might be 13:41.753 --> 13:44.043 useful. This is an airplane, 13:44.035 --> 13:47.115 what does that have to do with Biomedical Engineering? 13:47.120 --> 13:50.650 Well you could stretch it and say that an example of 13:50.651 --> 13:54.741 engineering to improve human health is getting them from one 13:54.736 --> 13:58.086 place to another, but that would be more of a 13:58.089 --> 14:01.499 stretch than I'm going to make. But it turns out that 14:01.499 --> 14:04.539 technologies like airplanes, which were developed in the 14:04.537 --> 14:06.857 last century, have become integral parts of 14:06.856 --> 14:08.536 medicine. For example, 14:08.541 --> 14:12.801 you all know that the only treatment for some diseases is 14:12.795 --> 14:16.665 to get an organ transplant: a kidney transplant, 14:16.669 --> 14:21.159 or a liver transplant is the only life extending intervention 14:21.164 --> 14:24.614 that can be done for some kinds of diseases. 14:24.610 --> 14:30.440 Transplants require donors, and the donor organ is usually 14:30.443 --> 14:36.383 not at the same physical location that the recipient is, 14:36.379 --> 14:40.519 and so jets like this one have become very important in 14:40.522 --> 14:44.742 connecting donors to recipients. A team of surgeons is working 14:44.735 --> 14:48.105 to harvest an organ at one site while another team of surgeons 14:48.114 --> 14:51.164 is working to prepare the recipient at another site, 14:51.160 --> 14:54.790 and the organ is flown there. Now why does that happen? 14:54.789 --> 14:57.429 Because you have to get the organ from one place to another 14:57.432 --> 14:59.492 fast, right? The organ has to get from one 14:59.490 --> 15:02.380 place to another very rapidly and this is the fastest way to 15:02.379 --> 15:04.499 do it. Well what if we could develop 15:04.499 --> 15:07.629 ways using engineering techniques to extend the life of 15:07.627 --> 15:11.447 an organ, so it didn't have to get it where it went so quickly? 15:11.450 --> 15:15.440 Then that would open up lots of more possibilities for organ 15:15.444 --> 15:17.954 transplantation than are known now. 15:17.950 --> 15:20.390 What if we could figure out ways to avoid organ 15:20.394 --> 15:23.284 transplantation entirely? What if we could just take a 15:23.283 --> 15:26.093 few cells from that donor organ, ship them to the site, 15:26.088 --> 15:29.098 grow a new organ at the site and then implant it there? 15:29.100 --> 15:32.400 These are examples of Biomedical Engineering of the 15:32.404 --> 15:35.224 future that expand on what we currently use, 15:35.220 --> 15:43.290 which involves to no small extent, technology like this. 15:43.289 --> 15:47.489 I would guess that probably 30% to 50% of you do this everyday, 15:47.486 --> 15:51.516 you put a piece of plastic, a synthetic piece of plastic 15:51.524 --> 15:54.344 into your eye to improve your vision. 15:54.340 --> 15:58.080 Contact lens technology has changed dramatically from the 15:58.076 --> 16:01.676 time that I was born to the time that you were born, 16:01.679 --> 16:04.349 and the contact lenses you use today are much different than 16:04.348 --> 16:06.608 the ones that would have been used 30 years ago. 16:06.610 --> 16:08.770 This is Biomedical Engineering as well. 16:08.769 --> 16:10.679 Engineers who are developing new materials, 16:10.681 --> 16:12.821 materials that can be, if you think about it, 16:12.820 --> 16:15.330 there's not very many things that you would want to put in 16:15.330 --> 16:18.020 your eye and that you would feel comfortable putting into your 16:18.017 --> 16:19.987 eye, so this is a very safe, 16:19.990 --> 16:23.110 a very inert material. What gives it those properties? 16:23.110 --> 16:26.390 What makes it so safe that it can be put in one of the most 16:26.389 --> 16:29.669 sensitive places in your body, in contact with your eye? 16:29.669 --> 16:32.789 Why do you have confidence putting it in contact with one 16:32.794 --> 16:35.254 of the most important organs of your body? 16:35.250 --> 16:39.140 Because you trust biomedical engineers to have done a good 16:39.138 --> 16:42.748 job in designing these things and we'll talk about how 16:42.753 --> 16:45.553 biomaterials are designed and tested, 16:45.549 --> 16:48.559 and what makes a material, the properties of a material 16:48.563 --> 16:50.743 that you could use as a contact lens, 16:50.740 --> 16:53.110 what are the properties that it needs to have. 17:02.950 --> 17:07.060 This is an example of an artificial hip. 17:07.059 --> 17:11.239 We've learned a lot about the mechanics of how humans work as 17:11.242 --> 17:14.172 organisms over the last 100 years or so, 17:14.170 --> 17:16.890 how we work as sort of physical objects that have to obey the 17:16.888 --> 17:18.608 laws of physics that you know about. 17:18.609 --> 17:22.029 We live in a gravitational field and that it affects our 17:22.027 --> 17:24.817 day to day life, and if you have hip pain or a 17:24.823 --> 17:28.943 hip that's diseased in some way, and you can't stand up against 17:28.938 --> 17:32.758 that gravitational field in the same way, that severely limits 17:32.756 --> 17:36.566 what you can do in the world. So biomedical engineers have 17:36.565 --> 17:40.495 been working for many years on how to design replacement parts 17:40.498 --> 17:43.978 for joints like the hip: the artificial hip is the most 17:43.980 --> 17:47.240 well developed of those. We'll talk about this in some 17:47.237 --> 17:49.527 detail. You can imagine that there are 17:49.525 --> 17:53.395 many requirements that a device like this has to meet in order 17:53.399 --> 17:57.209 for it to be a good artificial hip and we'll talk about those 17:57.209 --> 18:01.149 and how the design of these has changed over the years and what 18:01.147 --> 18:04.847 we can expect in the future. Lastly, up here, 18:04.846 --> 18:09.056 is a picture of a much smaller device, this is actually an 18:09.056 --> 18:13.486 artificial heart valve that is made of plastics and metal and 18:13.486 --> 18:16.806 can replace the valve inside your heart. 18:16.809 --> 18:21.299 Valvular disease is not uncommon in the world; 18:21.299 --> 18:23.919 we'll talk about that a little bit. 18:23.920 --> 18:26.710 We'll talk about how your normal valves function inside 18:26.706 --> 18:29.846 your heart and how your heart couldn't work in the way that it 18:29.853 --> 18:32.853 did if it didn't have valves that were doing a very complex 18:32.846 --> 18:35.486 operation many, many times a day. 18:35.490 --> 18:40.090 And then we'll talk about how you can build something to 18:40.091 --> 18:44.861 replace a complicated small part in the body like that. 18:44.859 --> 18:47.149 Well let's take a step back for a minute; 18:47.150 --> 18:49.720 that's one way of looking at Biomedical Engineering, 18:49.721 --> 18:52.541 by looking at sort of the things that you know about that 18:52.544 --> 18:55.774 have been the result of the work of biomedical engineers and talk 18:55.771 --> 18:58.021 more generally. But what is engineering? 18:58.020 --> 19:01.060 What do engineers do? What makes engineering 19:01.059 --> 19:03.839 different than other fields of study? 19:03.839 --> 19:07.359 What makes it unique so that we have a school of engineering at 19:07.363 --> 19:10.493 Yale that's separate from science and the humanities? 19:14.850 --> 19:19.360 Any thoughts? Student: 19:19.364 --> 19:20.894 It's more hands-onProfessor Mark 19:20.890 --> 19:22.380 Saltzman: It's much more hands-on. 19:22.380 --> 19:26.680 You're actually in there doing things. 19:26.680 --> 19:32.850 Many of the things I showed you were things that were built from 19:32.845 --> 19:36.265 parts, that's a good description. 19:36.269 --> 19:38.179 What makes it different from science? 19:38.180 --> 19:41.890 Science can be hands-on, you might be down at the lake 19:41.885 --> 19:45.165 picking up algae and studying them or something, 19:45.172 --> 19:49.472 that would be hands-on. But what's different - what 19:49.470 --> 19:52.770 would make you an engineer? Student: 19:52.769 --> 19:55.169 [inaudible]Professor Mark Saltzman: 19:55.170 --> 19:57.850 You design. Scientists observe and try to 19:57.852 --> 20:00.112 describe and engineers try to design. 20:00.109 --> 20:02.849 They take those descriptions and the scientist that is known 20:02.848 --> 20:04.518 and they try to design new things, 20:04.519 --> 20:07.209 and so if you look at a dictionary it has words like 20:07.205 --> 20:10.095 this, that you're designing things or another way to say 20:10.102 --> 20:12.632 that is that you're trying to apply science, 20:12.630 --> 20:16.480 you're looking at applications. We're trying to take scientific 20:16.478 --> 20:18.878 information and make something new. 20:18.880 --> 20:21.370 The other thing about it is that you could make lots of 20:21.371 --> 20:23.911 things that are new but generally you think of engineers 20:23.909 --> 20:26.769 as making things that are not just new but they're useful, 20:26.769 --> 20:29.929 that they do something that needs to be done, 20:29.926 --> 20:33.366 and that they do something that improves life, 20:33.370 --> 20:40.300 the quality of life of people. So here is a brief and very 20:40.304 --> 20:45.494 biased history of engineering. It's short. 20:45.490 --> 20:50.540 Engineering became a discipline in about the middle of the 20:50.541 --> 20:52.591 1800s. Lots of universities started 20:52.587 --> 20:55.117 teaching engineering as a discipline including Yale. 20:55.119 --> 20:58.929 In 1852, around that time, this might have been the first 20:58.930 --> 21:02.540 course that was offered in engineering in the country: 21:02.537 --> 21:06.277 it was taught at Yale in civil engineering in 1852, 21:06.279 --> 21:09.009 and even Yale students don't know this; 21:09.009 --> 21:10.969 what a long, distinguished history of 21:10.965 --> 21:13.405 engineering that their own institution has. 21:13.410 --> 21:17.020 In fact, the first PhD degree in engineering was awarded to a 21:17.015 --> 21:19.655 fellow named J. Willard Gibbs at Yale in 1863 21:19.659 --> 21:22.659 for a thesis he did on how gears work or something, 21:22.663 --> 21:26.033 I forget exactly what the details are, but have you heard 21:26.028 --> 21:29.268 of Gibbs? Is it a name that rings a bell? 21:29.269 --> 21:33.319 Where did you hear about Gibbs from? 21:33.319 --> 21:34.209 Student: [inaudible]Professor 21:34.214 --> 21:34.974 Mark Saltzman: Sorry?Student: 21:34.972 --> 21:35.852 [inaudible]Professor Mark Saltzman: 21:35.846 --> 21:37.436 G, Gibbs free energy, 21:37.438 --> 21:40.208 that annoying concept that you had to try to master in 21:40.208 --> 21:44.438 chemistry at some point, but Gibbs is really the father 21:44.443 --> 21:49.903 of modern physical chemistry and was one of the most famous 21:49.900 --> 21:55.550 scientists of the nineteenth century and got the first PhD in 21:55.546 --> 22:00.416 engineering here at Yale. Then from these beginnings, 22:00.418 --> 22:03.788 engineers transformed life in the twentieth century: 22:03.788 --> 22:07.618 a lot of things started in the twentieth century and became 22:07.620 --> 22:09.830 common place. Things like electricity, 22:09.831 --> 22:12.391 having electricity delivered to your home, so you had to have 22:12.385 --> 22:15.065 ways to generate electricity and to carry it from point to point 22:15.067 --> 22:16.767 and it was engineers that did that. 22:16.769 --> 22:20.719 Built bridges and roads and automobiles, so we can get from 22:20.724 --> 22:24.684 one place to another relatively quickly because of that. 22:24.680 --> 22:27.680 Because there are airplanes that were also developed by 22:27.676 --> 22:30.746 engineers in that century. We designed a lot of new 22:30.749 --> 22:34.669 materials that could be used to build things that couldn't have 22:34.674 --> 22:38.254 been done otherwise. Things like steel and polymers, 22:38.246 --> 22:39.946 or plastics, and ceramics, 22:39.952 --> 22:44.122 and of course computers which has progressed remarkably due to 22:44.116 --> 22:47.116 the work of engineers in your lifetime, 22:47.119 --> 22:50.659 until now you can carry around a cell phone, 22:50.657 --> 22:55.097 which would have been unthinkable even 30 years ago. 22:55.099 --> 22:58.609 Engineers in the twentieth century have transformed our 22:58.609 --> 23:00.439 society. One of the other things 23:00.444 --> 23:02.864 that happened during the twentieth century is that human 23:02.857 --> 23:04.697 life expectancy increased dramatically, 23:04.700 --> 23:06.890 people started living a lot longer. 23:06.890 --> 23:10.860 What I plot on this graph here is as a function time, 23:10.858 --> 23:14.058 years, dates, life expectancy as a function 23:14.064 --> 23:18.444 of time. What you'll see here is that 23:18.436 --> 23:24.606 about - for the period before sort of 1700 or so, 23:24.609 --> 23:27.699 human life expectancy was less than 40 years of age, 23:27.697 --> 23:31.387 so that means a person that was born in that year could expect 23:31.391 --> 23:34.721 to live on average about 40 years: that was the expected 23:34.721 --> 23:37.271 life span. The expected life spans 23:37.272 --> 23:41.202 increased dramatically in the last couple of hundred years 23:41.195 --> 23:43.835 until now, for people that were born when 23:43.841 --> 23:47.171 you were born you can expect to live to be 80 years old, 23:47.170 --> 23:50.790 a doubling in life span, fairly dramatic. 23:50.789 --> 23:52.469 So what's responsible for that? 23:52.470 --> 23:56.010 Why are people living longer than they did just a few hundred 23:56.011 --> 23:59.231 years ago? Well there's a clue here on the 23:59.232 --> 24:01.532 slide. I indicated a couple of points 24:01.529 --> 24:05.099 here where if we looked in the 1665 in London you could ask the 24:05.103 --> 24:08.333 question - another way to ask the question why are people 24:08.331 --> 24:10.811 living so long is to ask the question, 24:10.810 --> 24:14.630 why do people die? In 1665,93% of the people that 24:14.629 --> 24:18.169 died in that year died of infectious diseases. 24:18.170 --> 24:20.970 In contrast, if you look at a U.S. 24:20.968 --> 24:26.228 city, ten years ago in 1997 for example, then people still died 24:26.226 --> 24:30.296 but they didn't die predominantly from infectious 24:30.297 --> 24:33.117 diseases. They died from other things: 24:33.124 --> 24:35.294 only 4% died from infectious diseases. 24:35.289 --> 24:38.469 So one of the reasons there is a huge increase in life span 24:38.469 --> 24:41.549 is because people aren't dying of things that they would have 24:41.545 --> 24:46.025 in prior years. Why the change in infectious 24:46.027 --> 24:49.007 diseases? Why did I focus on that one? 24:49.009 --> 24:53.849 What makes it so much better to be alive now in terms of your 24:53.845 --> 24:58.115 likelihood to die of an infectious disease than it did 24:58.116 --> 25:00.256 in London in 1665? Student: 25:00.260 --> 25:01.370 [inaudible]Professor Mark Saltzman: 25:01.370 --> 25:02.210 Yes, but what specifically? 25:02.940 --> 25:06.220 Student: [inaudible]Professor 25:06.221 --> 25:09.361 Mark Saltzman: Drugs like antibiotics, 25:09.359 --> 25:12.039 Penicillin, Erythromycin, again something else you 25:12.035 --> 25:15.365 probably all had experience with and you think well that's not 25:15.366 --> 25:17.656 Biomedical Engineering that's science, 25:17.660 --> 25:20.750 that's somebody discovering a molecule that kills 25:20.746 --> 25:22.516 microorganisms. That's true, 25:22.517 --> 25:24.827 it is science, but in order for that to go 25:24.830 --> 25:27.990 from being a science that works in a laboratory or in one 25:27.990 --> 25:31.380 hospital to being Penicillin which could be used all over the 25:31.376 --> 25:33.466 world, you've got to be able to make 25:33.465 --> 25:35.985 it in tremendously large quantities and that's the work 25:35.988 --> 25:38.908 of biomedical engineers, making Penicillin in the kinds 25:38.906 --> 25:42.216 of quantities that you need so that a dose could be available 25:42.219 --> 25:44.979 for everyone in the world if they got infected, 25:44.980 --> 25:47.920 and to make it not just in abundance but make it cheaply 25:47.923 --> 25:50.013 enough that everyone could afford it. 25:50.009 --> 25:55.049 So if you can make 100 tons of the drug but it costs $100,000 a 25:55.045 --> 26:00.155 gram that might not be a useful drug because nobody could afford 26:00.162 --> 26:03.352 to use it. So it's the work of biomedical 26:03.349 --> 26:06.489 engineers, really, to take these innovations in 26:06.492 --> 26:09.432 science like drugs and make them useful, 26:09.430 --> 26:13.110 make them so that everybody can take advantage of it. 26:13.109 --> 26:15.939 You also mentioned vaccines and we're going to talk a lot in 26:15.940 --> 26:18.230 the middle part of the course about vaccines and the 26:18.231 --> 26:20.751 engineering of immunity. How do you engineer what 26:20.753 --> 26:23.653 happens in our immune system in order to protect us from 26:23.648 --> 26:26.418 diseases? That's another example of an 26:26.420 --> 26:30.320 area where biomedical engineers have made tremendous 26:30.320 --> 26:33.340 contributions. So just to go a little bit 26:33.339 --> 26:36.909 further with that point, if you looked at the causes of 26:36.910 --> 26:40.950 death in London in 1665 here's a list that I got from a source 26:40.945 --> 26:45.285 that was written at that time, and I don't even understand 26:45.294 --> 26:49.444 what some of these things are, but the ones in green are 26:49.437 --> 26:52.597 infectious diseases, they're infectious causes of 26:52.600 --> 26:55.550 disease. Spotted fever in purples for 26:55.552 --> 27:00.632 example, which we call measles, was a significant cause of 27:00.626 --> 27:06.536 death as was the plague, which we don't have anymore, 27:06.542 --> 27:10.242 thank goodness. But people died typically of 27:10.236 --> 27:13.786 either infectious diseases or they died during childbirth, 27:13.789 --> 27:19.229 or they might have died at old age which would have been 50 or 27:19.233 --> 27:21.833 so at that time. In contrast today, 27:21.833 --> 27:24.483 because we have antibiotics and we have vaccines, 27:24.481 --> 27:27.351 people don't die of infectious diseases as often. 27:27.349 --> 27:31.709 They live much longer lives and they live to die of something 27:31.714 --> 27:36.154 else and the leading causes of death currently haven't changed 27:36.150 --> 27:39.720 very much since 1997 when this data was published: 27:39.715 --> 27:43.565 they die of heart disease and cancer primarily. 27:43.569 --> 27:45.929 Those are the number one and two causes of death. 27:45.930 --> 27:50.100 We're going to talk a lot about how one can use the technology 27:50.101 --> 27:54.211 that we have now to treat these kinds of diseases like cancer 27:54.205 --> 27:57.735 and heart disease. But why do you think these are 27:57.742 --> 28:02.512 the number one and two now? How come these have risen above 28:02.511 --> 28:07.791 infectious diseases over the last several hundred years? 28:11.750 --> 28:15.530 Why is cancer one of the leading killers in the U.S. 28:15.529 --> 28:18.539 now but wasn't even on the charts in 1665? 28:25.980 --> 28:28.040 Student: [inaudible]Professor 28:28.036 --> 28:29.776 Mark Saltzman: So it could be that - 28:29.780 --> 28:31.140 what's your name? Student: 28:31.138 --> 28:32.868 JustinProfessor Mark Saltzman: So Justin said it 28:32.867 --> 28:34.427 could be new things that are around and you're exposed to 28:34.428 --> 28:35.988 stuff we weren't exposed to before and that's true. 28:35.990 --> 28:38.430 Our environment has changed, the world has become 28:38.426 --> 28:41.426 industrialized. We're exposed to things that 28:41.427 --> 28:46.077 might cause cancer where weren't exposed to them before and so 28:46.084 --> 28:48.744 that might be a reason. Student: 28:48.742 --> 28:51.252 they might not know what it was?Professor Mark 28:51.253 --> 28:53.813 Saltzman: In 1665, they weren't diagnosing cancer. 28:53.809 --> 28:56.719 It was easy to tell if somebody had an infectious disease but 28:56.724 --> 28:59.694 you might not have known that they had cancer at that time and 28:59.687 --> 29:02.737 they just died. We didn't have the same methods 29:02.740 --> 29:06.310 of diagnosis that we do now, so maybe it was just not 29:06.313 --> 29:08.143 diagnosed then. Student: 29:08.136 --> 29:09.886 [inaudible]Professor Mark Saltzman: 29:09.894 --> 29:11.974 People are living longer and so now they have more 29:11.965 --> 29:13.445 opportunity to get cancer, right? 29:13.450 --> 29:18.000 The longer you live the more opportunity you have to acquire 29:17.999 --> 29:22.629 a disease like cancer, which often is an accumulation 29:22.625 --> 29:27.245 of defects that occur over a long period of time. 29:27.250 --> 29:30.010 So we're going to talk about cancer. 29:30.009 --> 29:31.789 For example, how cancer diagnosis has 29:31.786 --> 29:34.396 improved, what are some of the causes of cancer in the 29:34.402 --> 29:37.272 environment around us and how can we protect ourselves from 29:37.265 --> 29:39.645 it, and we'll talk about treatments 29:39.649 --> 29:42.969 for it as well. Cardiovascular disease, 29:42.974 --> 29:46.594 why is cardiovascular disease on the top? 29:46.589 --> 29:48.279 Student: [inaudible]Professor 29:48.280 --> 29:49.820 Mark Saltzman: Obesity or generally our 29:49.823 --> 29:51.553 diets are different than they were in 1665. 29:51.549 --> 29:55.279 We eat different kinds of things and many people think 29:55.283 --> 29:59.653 that that's what has contributed to much more heart disease. 29:59.650 --> 30:02.700 But it could also be that it wasn't as easily diagnosed then. 30:02.700 --> 30:04.960 So people were dying of old age and that was really heart 30:04.955 --> 30:07.125 disease that was killing them they just didn't know, 30:07.130 --> 30:14.040 so it's multi-factorial and we'll talk about that. 30:14.039 --> 30:16.719 I just wanted to show you this last graph, 30:16.724 --> 30:20.244 or this last set of statistics to go from causes of death in 30:20.244 --> 30:22.654 the U.S. to causes of death in the 30:22.651 --> 30:26.711 world, to illustrate that what happens in the world around us 30:26.712 --> 30:28.902 in the U.S. isn't necessarily the same as 30:28.900 --> 30:30.910 what happens in other places around the world. 30:30.910 --> 30:33.610 In other places, infectious disease is a much 30:33.613 --> 30:37.423 bigger part of their life and a much greater risk of death from 30:37.422 --> 30:40.682 infectious diseases and parasitic diseases if you live 30:40.679 --> 30:44.869 in places other than the U.S. or Western Europe, for example. 30:44.869 --> 30:49.339 So the problem of infectious disease prevention and treatment 30:49.343 --> 30:51.653 isn't solved yet, you know this, 30:51.654 --> 30:54.264 right? So there's plenty of room to 30:54.261 --> 30:57.851 still innovate in that way, to develop new methods that 30:57.852 --> 31:01.582 could protect against diseases like AIDS or diseases like 31:01.575 --> 31:05.295 malaria that we don't have problems with here but they do 31:05.299 --> 31:09.099 in many parts of the world, and so we'll talk about that. 31:09.099 --> 31:14.679 I mentioned the book for the course and the book is a 31:14.679 --> 31:18.999 book that I've written. It's not published yet and so 31:18.999 --> 31:22.599 I'm going to put chapters from the book that are in fairly 31:22.596 --> 31:24.586 final form, and I think you'll find them 31:24.592 --> 31:26.342 easy to read, but you don't have to buy it. 31:26.339 --> 31:29.749 It's going to be posted on the Internet and I'll post chapters 31:29.748 --> 31:32.428 sort of in advance of the reading assignments. 31:32.430 --> 31:35.520 If you looked on the classes server you saw Chapter 1, 31:35.516 --> 31:38.886 and Chapter 1 describes some of the sort or organization of 31:38.894 --> 31:41.694 Biomedical Engineering into sub-disciplines, 31:41.690 --> 31:44.810 which I've listed here. So we're going to talk 31:44.813 --> 31:48.833 about thinking about the body as a system, as a system that can 31:48.828 --> 31:52.578 be understood the same way a motor could be understood or a 31:52.584 --> 31:55.114 computer that could be understood. 31:55.109 --> 31:58.249 That study is Systems Physiology and that's an 31:58.245 --> 32:01.725 important subdivision of Biomedical Engineering. 32:01.730 --> 32:06.600 We'll talk about instrumentation a little bit and 32:06.599 --> 32:11.769 I've mentioned this, things like the EKG machine and 32:11.773 --> 32:17.663 the heart/lung machine are instruments that are designed to 32:17.657 --> 32:23.537 either keep patients alive or to allow you to monitor their 32:23.540 --> 32:28.230 function over time. We'll talk about imaging which 32:28.230 --> 32:32.190 I mentioned, biomechanics or the study of humans as mechanical 32:32.194 --> 32:34.734 objects. We'll talk about a field which 32:34.734 --> 32:37.724 is growing now called biomolecular engineering and 32:37.715 --> 32:40.755 that is the design of biomaterials or new materials 32:40.757 --> 32:43.127 that can be implanted in the body, 32:43.130 --> 32:47.000 it's new ways of drug delivery. It's this whole field of tissue 32:47.000 --> 32:49.280 engineering that I mentioned earlier. 32:49.279 --> 32:52.459 We'll talk about artificial organs and we'll talk about 32:52.461 --> 32:55.941 systems biology or thinking about how to acquire information 32:55.937 --> 32:59.057 for things like gene chips and use that information to 32:59.060 --> 33:02.890 understand what's happening in a complex organism like you. 33:02.890 --> 33:05.840 Now, I've highlighted three of these in blue here, 33:05.836 --> 33:08.446 imaging, mechanics, and biomolecular engineering 33:08.449 --> 33:11.729 because if you go on to study Biomedical Engineering here at 33:11.729 --> 33:14.999 Yale anyway, these are the things that you 33:14.999 --> 33:18.799 might pick to emphasize on. These are the things that we do 33:18.800 --> 33:21.970 best and where we have advanced course work available in these 33:21.969 --> 33:24.929 three categories and so I'm going to emphasize these three 33:24.931 --> 33:27.941 but we'll talk about all of these subjects as we go through 33:27.944 --> 33:31.104 the course. The syllabus is posted online. 33:31.099 --> 33:33.889 I've just copied it here so you could take a look at it. 33:33.890 --> 33:36.690 Week 1 we're trying to talk about this question, 33:36.688 --> 33:40.388 what is Biomedical Engineering. There are some chapters here 33:40.393 --> 33:42.153 for readings: Chapters 1,2, 33:42.151 --> 33:44.271 and 4. I've only posted Chapter 1, 33:44.268 --> 33:47.618 which basically reviews the things I've talked about today. 33:47.619 --> 33:50.749 Chapters 2 and 4 are really reviews of things that you 33:50.751 --> 33:54.241 probably already know something about, so they're reviews of 33:54.238 --> 33:58.008 basic chemistry. So chemical concepts that are 33:58.010 --> 34:02.660 important for us to all understand as we move forward 34:02.655 --> 34:06.135 and review of proteins and biochemistry, 34:06.140 --> 34:08.910 basically. So I'm going to post those 34:08.909 --> 34:12.209 online and we're not going to talk about them directly in the 34:12.210 --> 34:14.630 lectures but they're there as a resource, 34:14.630 --> 34:17.630 so if you read about something like pH and you've forgotten 34:17.631 --> 34:20.681 what pH is, you can go back to Chapter 2 which is posted and 34:20.684 --> 34:23.944 you can read about pH and I try to take you through sort of what 34:23.943 --> 34:26.743 you need to know in order to understand the rest of the 34:26.738 --> 34:29.478 course material. And if you've forgotten about 34:29.475 --> 34:31.585 proteins and what their structure is like, 34:31.589 --> 34:34.529 you can go to Chapter 4 and read sort of a brief review of 34:34.529 --> 34:37.839 protein biochemistry. In the section this week, 34:37.844 --> 34:41.454 I'll talk about the section meetings in just a moment, 34:41.452 --> 34:45.062 but there's no required section meeting this week. 34:45.059 --> 34:48.119 During the section times I'll be available if you feel like 34:48.116 --> 34:50.956 you want to read Chapters 2 and 4 and then come and ask 34:50.962 --> 34:53.232 questions, sort of a tutorial on these 34:53.227 --> 34:55.257 topics of chemistry and biochemistry, 34:55.263 --> 34:58.773 then I'll be available to talk about that during that time. 34:58.769 --> 35:01.739 We'll start with Week 2 talking about Genetic Engineering; 35:01.739 --> 35:05.469 what's DNA, how can it be manipulated, how is our ability 35:05.465 --> 35:09.585 to manipulate DNA led to things like gene therapy which can now 35:09.589 --> 35:12.379 be in people. And we'll talk about that and 35:12.383 --> 35:15.533 that's what Chapter 3 is about. We'll talk about cell culture 35:15.530 --> 35:17.970 engineering during Week 4, how do you maintain cells in 35:17.971 --> 35:19.781 culture, what are the limits of this. 35:19.780 --> 35:22.030 How can you use cultured cells to do things, 35:22.028 --> 35:25.218 and how do engineers build new things out of cultured cells is 35:25.218 --> 35:28.408 going to be a subject we talk about throughout the rest of the 35:28.408 --> 35:30.708 course and the chapter is listed here. 35:30.710 --> 35:33.570 So I think that's enough, you can follow along with the 35:33.570 --> 35:36.590 syllabus and see sort of what the topics are each week, 35:36.590 --> 35:39.460 what the reading assignment is to do before the lecture in 35:39.462 --> 35:41.632 order to get the most out of the lecture. 35:41.630 --> 35:44.170 Now, each week we have a section meeting, 35:44.167 --> 35:46.877 required section, they're all - all the sections 35:46.878 --> 35:50.278 meet on Thursday afternoon and the idea of the section is to 35:50.281 --> 35:54.031 amplify on some subject we've talked about during the week. 35:54.030 --> 35:57.110 We do this in the undergraduate Biomedical Engineering 35:57.111 --> 36:00.021 laboratory in the Malone Building so that we can do 36:00.018 --> 36:03.448 demonstrations and sort of hands on projects to really get a 36:03.448 --> 36:07.168 little bit deeper into the subject that we're considering. 36:07.170 --> 36:10.750 So in the first week we run a section called from strawberries 36:10.753 --> 36:13.223 to gene therapy where we talk about DNA, 36:13.219 --> 36:16.319 extract DNA, you can play with the DNA of an 36:16.315 --> 36:20.265 organism and we can think about how to use DNA for other 36:20.274 --> 36:22.634 purposes. In Week 3 you'll actually 36:22.627 --> 36:25.457 do some cell culture in the laboratory and look at cultured 36:25.461 --> 36:27.271 cells and learn how to manipulate, 36:27.269 --> 36:30.179 do some manipulations on cells and culture, and so on 36:30.175 --> 36:33.125 throughout the weeks. We have a one hour section 36:33.127 --> 36:36.907 that's designed to give you some more detailed experience, 36:36.909 --> 36:40.069 some hands on experience with some of the topics we're talking 36:40.074 --> 36:42.794 about. There are no lab reports that 36:42.794 --> 36:44.814 are due. There sometimes will be 36:44.805 --> 36:48.065 homework assignments which sort of build on what we've done 36:48.074 --> 36:51.574 during the section but it's not a lab in that sense that it's a 36:51.567 --> 36:54.997 long experience in the afternoon or that requires any detailed 36:55.004 --> 36:57.494 reports. But it is required and I think 36:57.488 --> 37:01.518 an important part of the course. There's a mid-term exam halfway 37:01.520 --> 37:05.840 through and a final exam at the end, and there's a term paper 37:05.836 --> 37:08.926 which is due near the end of the course. 37:08.929 --> 37:11.629 So this just - just saying a little bit more about the 37:11.631 --> 37:13.291 sections, there's three sections, 37:13.289 --> 37:16.419 we have online discussion section sign up, 37:16.424 --> 37:19.104 has anybody tried to do that yet? 37:19.099 --> 37:20.619 Just so they know that it's available? 37:20.619 --> 37:22.769 So it was supposed to be available from day one, 37:22.767 --> 37:25.547 you can sign up for a section that fits your schedule and this 37:25.554 --> 37:28.164 is sort of the list of things that we'll go through in the 37:28.159 --> 37:31.769 section meetings. Grading - 30% of the grade 37:31.770 --> 37:35.010 is for the mid-term, 30% for the final, 37:35.013 --> 37:38.003 and the final is not cumulative, 37:38.000 --> 37:41.400 the final covers only things for the last half of the course, 37:41.398 --> 37:44.738 so it's really just like a - covers half the course but it's 37:44.740 --> 37:46.950 given during the final exam period. 37:46.949 --> 37:50.029 There's a term paper which I'll talk more about as the weeks go 37:50.031 --> 37:52.021 on that's also worth 30% of the grade. 37:52.019 --> 37:55.409 You'll have weekly - approximately weekly homework 37:55.405 --> 37:58.785 assignments that account for 10% of your grade, 37:58.789 --> 38:01.449 but they have an impact beyond the 10% because if you can do 38:01.445 --> 38:03.555 the homework and you understand the homework, 38:03.559 --> 38:05.919 you're going to have no problem with the exams. 38:05.920 --> 38:10.400 I encourage you to spend more time than the weighting would 38:10.397 --> 38:13.767 suggest. So how do you get an "A" in 38:13.765 --> 38:16.415 the course? It's very simple. 38:16.420 --> 38:20.350 You do the reading before class, you come to class, 38:20.354 --> 38:24.024 and you do the homework. And I guarantee you if you do 38:24.020 --> 38:27.320 those three things throughout the course that you'll do well 38:27.318 --> 38:30.898 in the course and I've said this almost every time I've given the 38:30.895 --> 38:33.965 course and nobody has ever told me that I'm wrong. 38:33.969 --> 38:37.249 And so do these three things, if you don't get an "A" than 38:37.251 --> 38:40.131 you can come back and talk to me about it later. 38:40.130 --> 38:43.700 The assignment for the next class is to do Problem 2 of 38:43.695 --> 38:46.595 Chapter 1, which I've repeated right here, 38:46.599 --> 38:49.899 and that's to think beyond what I've talked about in terms of 38:49.903 --> 38:53.193 what is Biomedical Engineering. To think a little bit more 38:53.185 --> 38:56.565 about Biomedical Engineering products that you've encountered 38:56.568 --> 38:58.828 in your life, or that you have some 38:58.828 --> 39:01.738 experience with, and then to think beyond what 39:01.739 --> 39:05.559 information I've given you in the chapter or in this lecture 39:05.556 --> 39:08.916 to say what products of biomedical engineering do you 39:08.921 --> 39:12.351 expect to become routine in the next 50 years. 39:12.349 --> 39:16.909 So spend ten or 15 minutes thinking about this and write it 39:16.905 --> 39:21.615 down and bring your responses to class in the next period and 39:21.617 --> 39:26.137 we'll talk about that. So at the end of this first 39:26.139 --> 39:30.779 lecture where I've gone some way in trying to tell you what 39:30.780 --> 39:35.730 Biomedical Engineering is about, I thought I would try to relate 39:35.730 --> 39:40.060 it in a different sort of way. And you've heard this poem, 39:40.064 --> 39:44.924 London Bridge is Falling Down, everybody's heard this poem? 39:44.920 --> 39:47.410 You played the game; I don't know if there's a 39:47.413 --> 39:49.643 videogame now, if people play games like this 39:49.638 --> 39:51.608 where London Bridge is Falling Down. 39:51.610 --> 39:54.010 This is a picture of London Bridge, it's an interesting 39:54.007 --> 39:56.357 bridge which is important in the history of London. 39:56.360 --> 40:00.400 Bridges have really changed our society and allowed us to get 40:00.395 --> 40:04.025 from one place to another in ways that we couldn't have 40:04.026 --> 40:07.326 gotten to easily before. One of the interesting things 40:07.334 --> 40:10.084 about London Bridge is that it's now no longer in London, 40:10.083 --> 40:12.493 it's in Arizona, you can see a palm tree here. 40:12.489 --> 40:15.469 When they reconstructed London Bridge they moved the old London 40:15.469 --> 40:19.039 Bridge to Arizona; some guy bought it. 40:19.039 --> 40:22.949 That must be an interesting story, but I just have it here, 40:22.950 --> 40:27.000 and I think the poem tells you something about engineering if 40:26.995 --> 40:30.835 you go through it - and the problems of engineering.In 40:30.838 --> 40:34.608 bridge building we're well advanced in understanding what 40:34.613 --> 40:38.663 are the problems with building bridges and how do we overcome 40:38.658 --> 40:40.288 them? For example, 40:40.288 --> 40:43.378 one thing that could happen is that you build it up with wood 40:43.381 --> 40:46.201 and clay, you pick the wrong material for 40:46.197 --> 40:50.447 a bridge, and it will not stand up to the forces of nature. 40:50.449 --> 40:53.729 It will wash away and so you got to pick the right materials 40:53.728 --> 40:56.948 in order to build a bridge. So you pick a better material 40:56.946 --> 40:59.656 like iron and steel, that makes a better bridge, 40:59.659 --> 41:02.639 we know that now because we have experience with bridges, 41:02.644 --> 41:04.514 but still your bridge might fail. 41:04.510 --> 41:06.190 It might fail for a different reason. 41:06.190 --> 41:09.500 It might bend and bow, that is it's not the forces of 41:09.502 --> 41:13.522 nature like the movement of the river that's knocking the bridge 41:13.516 --> 41:15.656 down, but it's just the failure of 41:15.659 --> 41:18.859 these materials over time, that they don't last as long as 41:18.855 --> 41:21.535 they might. So you build it with a material 41:21.543 --> 41:24.433 like silver and gold, and then you encounter the 41:24.430 --> 41:28.120 problems of society that your bridge might get stolen because 41:28.115 --> 41:31.615 somebody thinks they have a better use for silver and gold 41:31.616 --> 41:34.406 than your bridge. I would say that in 41:34.411 --> 41:37.281 Biomedical Engineering, largely, we're still at the 41:37.283 --> 41:40.563 stage where we're trying to understand how things work and 41:40.558 --> 41:42.848 how they fail, and what materials are the 41:42.847 --> 41:44.857 right ones. We're maybe where civil 41:44.860 --> 41:48.100 engineering and bridge building was 100 years ago. 41:48.099 --> 41:51.689 And that makes it for me a very exciting time to study this 41:51.685 --> 41:55.145 because the problems aren't solved in the way that bridge 41:55.147 --> 41:57.927 building is largely a solved problem now. 41:57.929 --> 42:00.959 Problems like the artificial heart are still unsolved, 42:00.955 --> 42:03.005 there's still room for innovation, 42:03.010 --> 42:05.760 still room to learn from what hasn't worked before, 42:05.755 --> 42:08.825 to learn from science, and to design something better. 42:08.829 --> 42:11.589 So one of my purposes of this course is to get you, 42:11.586 --> 42:14.946 whether you study Biomedical Engineering after this or not, 42:14.949 --> 42:18.989 excited about the subject so that you start thinking about 42:18.988 --> 42:23.308 how you could innovate in this area where lots of problems are 42:23.309 --> 42:27.519 still left to solve, so I'll see you on Thursday 42:27.515 --> 42:28.995 hopefully.