WEBVTT 00:09.900 --> 00:13.500 I'm going to start playing a song. 00:13.500 --> 00:17.700 This lecture is taking us from the end of Reconstruction, 00:17.700 --> 00:21.800 1877, canvassing an array of events that actually go up 00:21.800 --> 00:24.670 to the, well to the present day in certain ways, 00:24.667 --> 00:26.667 but in a recorded way, in an official way, 00:26.667 --> 00:29.497 until the 1960s.  But we will--so from a 00:29.500 --> 00:32.500 phenomenological standpoint, we're talking about a large 00:32.500 --> 00:35.470 period of time.  From a literal standpoint, 00:35.467 --> 00:37.297 for this lecture, we're really talking about the 00:37.300 --> 00:40.500 18--end of Reconstruction to the end of the nineteenth 00:40.500 --> 00:43.470 century.  And with that, I want--I want to play a piece 00:43.467 --> 00:46.997 of music that's actually from the era of the Great 00:47.000 --> 00:50.700 Depression, but it's in reference to the time period 00:50.700 --> 00:53.300 we're talking about right now.  And if I can figure it 00:53.300 --> 00:54.600 out while you're listening to it, 00:54.600 --> 00:57.500 I'll get the lyrics up on the screen as well. 00:57.500 --> 00:59.370 [Billie Holiday]  ♪And now I'd like to sing a tune. ♪ 00:59.367 --> 01:02.397 ♪ It was written especially for me.  ♪ 01:02.400 --> 01:03.900 ♪ It's titled Strange Fruit. I really hope you like it. ♪ 01:15.600 --> 01:27.600 ♪ Southern trees bear strange fruit, ♪ 01:27.600 --> 01:40.370 ♪ Blood on the leaves and blood at the root, ♪ 01:40.367 --> 01:49.097 ♪ Black bodies swinging in the southern breeze, ♪ 01:50.767 --> 01:59.167 ♪ Strange fruit hanging from the poplar trees ♪ 02:06.100 --> 02:16.970 ♪ Pastoral scene of the gallant south, ♪ 02:16.967 --> 02:24.697 ♪ The bulging eyes and the twisted mouth, ♪ 02:24.700 --> 02:33.900 ♪ Scent of magnolias, sweet and fresh, ♪ 02:35.300 --> 02:45.670 ♪ Then the sudden smell of burning flesh. ♪ 02:45.667 --> 02:56.567 ♪ Here is fruit for the crows to pluck, ♪ 02:56.567 --> 03:05.597 ♪ For the rain to gather, for the wind to suck, ♪ 03:05.600 --> 03:20.870 ♪ For the sun to rot, for the tree to drop, ♪ 03:23.000 --> 03:42.270 ♪ Here is a strange and bitter crop. ♪ 03:50.567 --> 03:52.397 Many of you, some of you, I don't know, 03:52.400 --> 03:54.800 might recognize this as one of Billie Holiday's, 03:54.800 --> 03:56.870 the great blues singer, one of her, 03:56.867 --> 04:01.497 her most famous pieces, wrote by--not by her, 04:01.500 --> 04:04.500 but becomes one of her signature pieces for much of 04:04.500 --> 04:06.900 her career, Strange Fruit. 04:09.800 --> 04:12.900 Well, I don't think it needs elaboration in terms of 04:12.900 --> 04:17.000 interpretative potential of those lyrics.  It's a song 04:17.000 --> 04:19.000 about lynching, and violence, 04:19.000 --> 04:21.000 and the Southern nature of it, 04:21.000 --> 04:24.970 the scent of magnolia trees and such. 04:24.967 --> 04:29.397 Now you'll recall from the last lecture how I talked 04:29.400 --> 04:33.700 about the massive cultural shift that Southerners had 04:33.700 --> 04:37.800 to endure under Reconstruction governments.  04:37.800 --> 04:41.870 White Southerners' very notions of freedom, 04:41.867 --> 04:45.297 the very notions of labor, who's to do the work, 04:45.300 --> 04:49.470 and of politics, who's running their states, 04:49.467 --> 04:51.697 all these were turned upside down in the most fundamental 04:51.700 --> 04:56.070 ways.  You'll remember as well, 04:58.967 --> 05:02.597 at--nearing, nearing the end of the 1870s, 05:02.600 --> 05:06.200 the North is exhausted by Southern intransigence. 05:06.200 --> 05:09.100 South is digging--is continuing digging--to keep 05:09.100 --> 05:12.770 its heels dug in, and a deal is brokered, 05:12.767 --> 05:16.497 and a presidential dispute, a presidential election, 05:16.500 --> 05:19.800 that essentially withdraws Northern troops, 05:19.800 --> 05:20.870 Federal troops, from the South, 05:20.867 --> 05:23.897 ends Reconstruction, and then gives the chance 05:23.900 --> 05:26.700 to--for the South to reorganize itself fully 05:26.700 --> 05:30.370 within the Union.  Historians refer to this 05:30.367 --> 05:33.567 moment, this era that begins at that moment, 05:33.567 --> 05:36.197 as "the Rise of Redemption."  So you have 05:36.200 --> 05:39.570 Reconstruction followed by Redemption.  Now 05:39.567 --> 05:43.997 Redemption...this is a word that needs to be understood, 05:44.000 --> 05:46.300 understood as a fully complicated and loaded 05:46.300 --> 05:49.100 phrase.  Who's feeling redeemed, 05:49.100 --> 05:55.100 and redeemed on what terms?  It's really important to 05:57.600 --> 05:59.570 understand that when I'm talking about Redemption, 05:59.567 --> 06:01.297 when most people talk about Redemption, 06:01.300 --> 06:04.300 they're talking about the white South rising up and 06:04.300 --> 06:08.100 taking control of what was rightfully theirs.  We're 06:08.100 --> 06:10.600 talking about the while male South as well, 06:10.600 --> 06:13.570 and we're talking in different ways about the 06:13.567 --> 06:15.497 wealthy South and the poor South, 06:15.500 --> 06:16.700 the white poor South, and I'll, 06:16.700 --> 06:19.300 I'll map this out in the course of today's lecture.  06:19.300 --> 06:22.000 We are not talking about at all a constructive or 06:22.000 --> 06:28.000 positive era as far as the African American experience 06:32.067 --> 06:35.297 is concerned.  Now during Reconstruction, 06:35.300 --> 06:37.900 as I hope I made clear in previous lectures, 06:37.900 --> 06:42.200 deep seated anxieties take root among Southern whites 06:42.200 --> 06:45.170 about economics, about states' rights, 06:45.167 --> 06:47.897 and this is a very important couple of words here for 06:47.900 --> 06:52.400 today's lecture and for this week's reading as well.  06:52.400 --> 06:53.900 There's anxiety about economics and states' 06:53.900 --> 06:57.470 rights, but also about manliness and civilization.  06:57.467 --> 07:04.667 Manliness and civilization, really critical words.  So 07:04.667 --> 07:08.697 much of Redemption, this era, 07:08.700 --> 07:11.870 is about reclaiming--about whites trying to reclaim 07:14.000 --> 07:18.900 that which they thought was lost during Reconstruction 07:18.900 --> 07:23.200 and that which they thought was under attack.  A perfect 07:23.200 --> 07:28.070 example of an attempt by, or an articulation by, 07:28.067 --> 07:32.867 Southern whites about how they are going to redeem 07:32.867 --> 07:36.197 themselves--redeem the South--from the scourge of 07:36.200 --> 07:41.000 the Northern presence, is the fact that as soon as the 07:41.000 --> 07:42.900 federal troops leave, essentially, 07:42.900 --> 07:48.300 the KKK, which had been wiped out by the military, 07:48.300 --> 07:50.900 Northern troops, soon after it was established, 07:50.900 --> 07:56.000 the KKK reemerges with a vengeance.  But it's not the 07:56.000 --> 07:59.070 only group being formed in this moment of Redemption.  07:59.067 --> 08:02.567 There are other groups.  You don't need to know the names 08:02.567 --> 08:04.597 for your--for the purposes of the class, 08:04.600 --> 08:06.700 but just know there were other organizations, 08:06.700 --> 08:08.700 like the Knights of the White Camelia, 08:08.700 --> 08:10.600 the Constitutional Union Guards, 08:10.600 --> 08:12.970 the Pale Faces, the White Brotherhood, 08:12.967 --> 08:16.897 and the Council of Safety.  The last name is kind of 08:16.900 --> 08:18.900 interesting, because it's not one of these sort of 08:18.900 --> 08:21.000 grandiose, mythical kind of names, 08:21.000 --> 08:25.570 not Council of Safety.  Who's feeling threatened?  08:25.567 --> 08:31.567 Under what terms?  How will we establish safety?  So any 08:35.200 --> 08:41.000 number of nativist and racist hate groups that are 08:41.000 --> 08:44.800 being formed in this moment of cultural anxiety, 08:44.800 --> 08:47.000 I guess is the most polite way to put it, 08:47.000 --> 08:50.300 cultural, economic, social anxiety in the white South 08:50.300 --> 08:51.970 and a determination to reclaim it on its own 08:51.967 --> 08:57.967 terms.  Now when Republican government's faded, 09:01.200 --> 09:03.570 once the federal troops left, 09:03.567 --> 09:05.797 when they faded in the wake of a resurgent Democratic 09:05.800 --> 09:07.670 party, which is a Southern party, 09:07.667 --> 09:11.397 this at the end of Reconstruction, 09:11.400 --> 09:15.870 a range of tactics start being developed to guarantee 09:15.867 --> 09:18.167 the return of white power.  So it's not just that the 09:18.167 --> 09:21.197 federal troops left, the government's collapsed, 09:21.200 --> 09:22.970 whites were all of a sudden in control.  It wasn't that 09:22.967 --> 09:25.797 quick and that easy.  It was actually dirty and messy.  09:29.167 --> 09:33.797 Crops that were owned and tilled by blacks were 09:33.800 --> 09:39.800 destroyed.  Blacks' homes, their barns--which is an 09:39.800 --> 09:43.100 incredibly important part of the infrastructure in the 09:43.100 --> 09:45.000 South--their homes, their barns and other property 09:45.000 --> 09:51.070 were destroyed, were burned, as well.  If blacks tried to 09:51.067 --> 09:54.297 exercise the right to vote, black men, 09:54.300 --> 09:56.700 and go to the election booth, 09:56.700 --> 09:59.400 and if it is deemed by someone--how is really 09:59.400 --> 10:02.900 immaterial--but deemed that they might be voting 10:02.900 --> 10:05.100 Republican, which virtually all blacks were going to do 10:05.100 --> 10:08.600 anyway, you might find when you walked up to a voting 10:08.600 --> 10:10.470 booth--I might find if I were walking to the voting 10:10.467 --> 10:14.097 booth, someone standing outside brandishing a whip, 10:14.100 --> 10:17.000 making it very clear that if I voted for anybody but the 10:17.000 --> 10:21.700 Democrat, the whip would be used.  So there is sort of a 10:21.700 --> 10:28.300 scorched earth policy by citizens, 10:28.300 --> 10:31.300 white citizens of the South to reclaim what was theirs, 10:31.300 --> 10:35.170 to get blacks off the land, to destroy their property.  10:35.167 --> 10:38.867 And the people doing this dirty work are quite often 10:38.867 --> 10:44.367 members of these local militias like the Klan.  Now 10:44.367 --> 10:48.497 the Klan's [coughs], excuse me, 10:48.500 --> 10:51.400 the Klan's census, its numbers, 10:51.400 --> 10:53.600 really hard to peg down at any particular moment, 10:53.600 --> 10:56.900 and its popularity ebbs and flows.  We're at a moment, 10:56.900 --> 11:00.000 it's just come back, it's been destroyed for close to 11:00.000 --> 11:02.300 a decade.  It's coming back, it will be around for a 11:02.300 --> 11:04.000 while, it will fade out for a while, 11:04.000 --> 11:07.170 and we'll see in a couple of weeks how it comes back very 11:07.167 --> 11:10.997 strongly again.  But it is sort of always there at some 11:11.000 --> 11:16.300 level as a manifestation of cultural and psychological 11:16.300 --> 11:22.770 anxiety.  Now remember during Reconstruction, 11:22.767 --> 11:29.297 blacks had a tremendous new amount of voting power.  I 11:29.300 --> 11:31.400 mean they weren't winning all elected offices, 11:31.400 --> 11:36.870 of course, but as they had no representation prior to 11:36.867 --> 11:41.497 Reconstruction, any change was a welcome change.  When 11:41.500 --> 11:46.000 Redemption begins, black voting power is diluted very 11:46.000 --> 11:50.300 quickly through a range of tactics.  You certainly have 11:50.300 --> 11:52.900 people at the polling station with whips.  That's 11:52.900 --> 11:54.900 a pretty effective way to stop a black person from 11:54.900 --> 11:58.200 voting, but you also have gerrymandering, 11:58.200 --> 12:03.970 the reconfiguration of voting districts to 12:03.967 --> 12:06.997 eliminate or to mitigate the black vote. 12:07.000 --> 12:08.770 Since housing segregation was, 12:08.767 --> 12:11.767 was the rule of the land, if you cut a district in a 12:11.767 --> 12:14.467 certain way, you can make sure that you cut out black 12:14.467 --> 12:17.497 voting numbers to make any real change.  So 12:17.500 --> 12:19.270 gerrymandering--which is part of, 12:19.267 --> 12:21.497 you know, a long tradition.  It's not just a Southern 12:21.500 --> 12:24.400 one, not just against blacks.  Gerrymandering is 12:24.400 --> 12:27.800 used.  Poll taxes are developed.  Essentially you 12:27.800 --> 12:30.370 need to come to the poll, the registrar, 12:30.367 --> 12:34.067 to prove that you had paid taxes on land that you own 12:34.067 --> 12:35.197 according to certain guidelines, 12:35.200 --> 12:37.570 you know, generation or whatever.  Well, 12:37.567 --> 12:39.897 blacks didn't own land, and if it's about their 12:39.900 --> 12:41.400 predecessors, their predecessors didn't own 12:41.400 --> 12:44.900 land.  Or, if they had owned land, 12:44.900 --> 12:46.600 or if it's just about maybe just paying, 12:46.600 --> 12:50.500 proof of paying taxes, they didn't have the money to pay 12:50.500 --> 12:56.500 it.  Very effective ways to mitigate the black vote 12:56.500 --> 12:59.100 during this era are grandfather clauses.  It's 12:59.100 --> 13:00.600 very simple: if your grandfather voted, 13:00.600 --> 13:04.600 you can vote.  Well, basically no blacks' 13:04.600 --> 13:08.600 grandfathers had voted.  Wipes out the black voting 13:08.600 --> 13:11.600 population.  And then famously, 13:11.600 --> 13:15.100 of course, literacy tests.  They're adjudicated by a 13:15.100 --> 13:18.570 registrar under the most sort of random--well, 13:18.567 --> 13:23.867 they weren't random at all, but subjective--that's what 13:23.867 --> 13:24.867 I was looking for--subjective 13:24.867 --> 13:31.067 circumstances.  So if you could read this section of a 13:31.067 --> 13:33.797 state constitution, or if you could recite it from 13:33.800 --> 13:35.900 memory, or if you could do anything that suggested you 13:35.900 --> 13:39.100 were literate, then you could vote.  Well, 13:39.100 --> 13:44.000 although one of the great stories in world history of 13:44.000 --> 13:45.500 literacy gain happens during, 13:45.500 --> 13:47.100 begins during this era, in terms of blacks becoming a 13:47.100 --> 13:48.900 literate population within the course of two 13:48.900 --> 13:53.700 generations--hadn't ever happened before--they 13:53.700 --> 13:57.370 weren't literate yet as a group.  So literacy tests 13:57.367 --> 13:59.597 would wipe it out.  So you take gerrymandering, 13:59.600 --> 14:01.600 you take poll taxes, grandfather clauses, 14:01.600 --> 14:04.600 literacy tests, and literal violence, 14:04.600 --> 14:07.070 or threat of violence, you're wiping out the black 14:07.067 --> 14:10.797 vote.  Now it's important to realize, 14:10.800 --> 14:13.000 you're also wiping out a lot of the poor white vote.  14:13.000 --> 14:16.500 This is an unintended--well, it depends on your 14:16.500 --> 14:19.770 interpretation--unintended or intended consequence of 14:19.767 --> 14:25.297 those who held the reins of power in the white South.  14:25.300 --> 14:26.800 What was certainly unintended--bless you--is 14:26.800 --> 14:33.370 that poor whites, and there were a lot of them, 14:33.367 --> 14:36.797 and blacks, who were almost, almost by default poor 14:36.800 --> 14:39.700 during this era--we're talking into the 18--going 14:39.700 --> 14:42.370 into the 1880s--start realizing they actually had 14:42.367 --> 14:45.997 a lot in common.  They were all hungry.  They were all 14:46.000 --> 14:48.370 essentially landless. 14:48.367 --> 14:50.197 And that the white poor farmer, 14:50.200 --> 14:52.270 the poor white farmer had more in common with the poor 14:52.267 --> 14:55.867 black farmer than did the white poor farmer did with 14:55.867 --> 15:01.497 the white gentry, the political elite.  And you 15:01.500 --> 15:03.470 have, going into the turn of the century, 15:03.467 --> 15:07.397 into the twentieth century, the rise of one of the many 15:07.400 --> 15:10.000 different articulations of the Populist Party, 15:10.000 --> 15:12.900 rise of populism.  Now the history of populism is much 15:12.900 --> 15:14.800 more complicated than the one minute I'm going to give 15:14.800 --> 15:20.800 it right now.  But you have, during the end of the 19th 15:20.800 --> 15:24.500 century, a range of different attempts to try to 15:24.500 --> 15:31.200 gather some power for poor agrarian classes.  And in 15:31.200 --> 15:32.870 some places in the South, a curious thing starts 15:32.867 --> 15:35.997 happening, that white and black farmers start aligning 15:36.000 --> 15:38.200 themselves with each other, start running 15:38.200 --> 15:41.600 campaigns--joint tickets, start fighting for the same 15:41.600 --> 15:46.900 candidate.  Tom Watson, a famous politician from 15:46.900 --> 15:50.100 Georgia, actually rises to power, 15:50.100 --> 15:52.000 rises to a level of influence, 15:52.000 --> 15:55.400 on this notion of, you know, working for agrarian 15:55.400 --> 15:59.170 interests.  But a funny thing happens, 15:59.167 --> 16:01.997 is that it becomes--it starts becoming successful, 16:02.000 --> 16:05.700 and there's a realization by the political elite: "My 16:05.700 --> 16:07.800 god, if these poor whites and poor blacks start really 16:07.800 --> 16:09.500 working together, we're in trouble, 16:09.500 --> 16:11.600   'cause the system is not just about racial 16:11.600 --> 16:13.600 domination, but it's also about economic domination.  16:17.867 --> 16:22.297 As a result of the rise in popularity of Populist 16:22.300 --> 16:28.170 sentiment, the race card gets played with increasing 16:28.167 --> 16:30.197 ferocity.  Rhetoric, like you saw in the 1868 campaign 16:30.200 --> 16:37.700 poster from a couple of lectures ago, 16:37.700 --> 16:38.970 that this is a white man's country, 16:38.967 --> 16:44.667 becomes much more commonplace.   That we may 16:44.667 --> 16:47.597 have different incomes, we may have different sort of 16:47.600 --> 16:49.900 economic security, but by God, 16:49.900 --> 16:53.300 we're all white, and there's prestige and value in it.  16:53.300 --> 16:56.500 And when you have a set of rules or--not rules--a set 16:56.500 --> 17:02.700 of social order being bestowed upon the South by 17:02.700 --> 17:06.300 the Klan, that's preying upon racial anxiety, 17:06.300 --> 17:09.770 as well as going against Catholics and Jews, 17:09.767 --> 17:13.167 but preying on racial anxiety, 17:13.167 --> 17:15.597 you start seeing fissures in the Populist sentiment just 17:15.600 --> 17:18.000 as quickly as they appeared.  And Tom Watson 17:18.000 --> 17:20.270 being someone who sort of gathered up the energy of a 17:20.267 --> 17:27.167 cross-racial alliance quickly becomes a hardcore 17:27.167 --> 17:30.067 racist and anti-Semite, so this is a radical shift for 17:30.067 --> 17:31.067 him. 17:31.067 --> 17:34.697 But there's this potential unifying moment, 17:34.700 --> 17:38.800 based on class lines, evaporates in the face of 17:38.800 --> 17:45.300 racial demagoguery.  That's what this era's about more 17:45.300 --> 17:48.270 than anything else.  All these other factors 17:48.267 --> 17:51.197 certainly are around that helps define who America is, 17:51.200 --> 17:54.070 you know, class differences, differences about 17:54.067 --> 17:57.067 possibilities related to your gender.  But race is 17:57.067 --> 17:59.797 the driving factor for so many issues relating to 17:59.800 --> 18:03.300 quality of life and safety.  Now getting back to the 18:03.300 --> 18:08.470 vote, for example, blacks were voting in new and 18:08.467 --> 18:10.297 startling numbers during Reconstruction.  Blacks were 18:10.300 --> 18:13.400 holding office from the local to the federal level, 18:13.400 --> 18:19.800 but because of a series of different mechanisms I 18:19.800 --> 18:25.170 talked about, because the rise of playing to racial 18:25.167 --> 18:27.797 anxieties becomes much more effective, 18:27.800 --> 18:32.500 the black vote's wiped out.  So just a couple of 18:32.500 --> 18:33.800 statistics, just to keep, you know, 18:33.800 --> 18:38.300 as representative.  In 1896, we're talking in, 18:38.300 --> 18:40.000 in Louisiana, just as one example, 18:40.000 --> 18:44.470 over one hundred and thirty thousand blacks are 18:44.467 --> 18:47.997 registered to vote in Louisiana, 18:48.000 --> 18:50.900 and they are the majority in twenty-six parishes. 18:50.900 --> 18:54.200  Black voting representation.  Four years 18:54.200 --> 18:58.700 later, in just four years, going from over one hundred 18:58.700 --> 19:01.670 and thirty thousand blacks, four years later, 19:01.667 --> 19:02.997 there are fifty-three hundred blacks on the 19:03.000 --> 19:06.670 polls--on the voting rolls, and there are no majority 19:06.667 --> 19:10.867 black parishes anywhere.  That is an elimination of a 19:10.867 --> 19:16.597 voting class, overnight.  In one election cycle, 19:16.600 --> 19:19.170 or maybe two if it's a two-year election cycle, 19:19.167 --> 19:22.697 you go from a possibility of black representation to zero 19:22.700 --> 19:29.300 possibility.  In Alabama, of one hundred and eighty 19:29.300 --> 19:33.700 thousand black men of voting age in 1900, 19:33.700 --> 19:36.100 in the wake of all these different kinds of ways of 19:36.100 --> 19:41.200 eliminating the black vote, in 1900, 19:41.200 --> 19:43.370 of over one hundred and eighty thousand possible 19:43.367 --> 19:45.397 black men who'd be eligible voters, 19:45.400 --> 19:48.400 only three thousand are registered to vote.  Now if 19:48.400 --> 19:49.470 you know anything about Alabama, 19:49.467 --> 19:52.397 you'll know there is a large black population in 19:52.400 --> 19:56.900 Alabama.  There're real opportunities to have black 19:56.900 --> 19:58.700 voting representation if people actually had access 19:58.700 --> 20:02.900 to the ballot box.  There's no access.  Three thousand 20:02.900 --> 20:06.070 people--three thousand men are registered to vote.  20:08.400 --> 20:10.500 Registering to vote, you need to understand, 20:10.500 --> 20:12.600 is not a matter of filling out a card and just 20:12.600 --> 20:14.370 disinterestedly putting it in the mailbox, 20:14.367 --> 20:16.767 something like that.  No, registering to vote, 20:16.767 --> 20:20.097 if you're a black man, is a matter of life or death, 20:20.100 --> 20:23.900 in certain--in many of these places.  The possibility of 20:23.900 --> 20:25.700 having your home burned down, 20:25.700 --> 20:29.370 of getting whipped, getting beaten, 20:29.367 --> 20:31.797 and, as we'll see, getting shot, 20:31.800 --> 20:37.400 is very real.  Now when it comes to the vote, 20:39.600 --> 20:42.400 you have all these forces trying to wipe it out, 20:42.400 --> 20:46.070 but it's important to take a moment to try to understand 20:46.067 --> 20:48.197 the psychology about why it's so important to wipe it 20:48.200 --> 20:55.400 out.  We can take a--an example from a famous 20:55.400 --> 20:56.400 politician, J. 20:56.400 --> 20:57.400 K. 20:57.400 --> 20:58.900 Vardaman of Mississippi. 20:58.900 --> 21:05.200 Rabid racist.  And his view of blacks' ability and 21:05.200 --> 21:10.670 education related to their--how civilized they 21:10.667 --> 21:11.967 were--again, there's that word. 21:11.967 --> 21:15.397 I'll start unpacking it later on in the lecture.  21:15.400 --> 21:17.000 That they did not have--they were, 21:17.000 --> 21:18.470 they were uncivilized, uncivilized, 21:18.467 --> 21:20.297 they were not educated enough, 21:20.300 --> 21:24.300 they didn't have the ability to be responsible voters.  21:24.300 --> 21:27.600 And Vardaman says, another one of these rather lovely 21:27.600 --> 21:31.270 sentiments, "I am just as opposed to Booker Washington 21:31.267 --> 21:35.097 as a voter, with all his Anglo-Saxon reinforcements, 21:35.100 --> 21:36.900 as I am to the coconut-headed, 21:36.900 --> 21:39.900 chocolate-colored typical little coon who blacks my 21:39.900 --> 21:43.570 shoes every morning.  Neither is fit to perform 21:43.567 --> 21:45.567 the supreme function of citizenship." 21:47.700 --> 21:48.700 Booker T. 21:48.700 --> 21:52.300 Washington, who we'll be talking about next week.  By 21:52.300 --> 21:54.400 the late nineteenth century, the leader of the race; 21:54.400 --> 22:00.400 there's no disputing that fact.  Even he, 22:03.967 --> 22:06.397 the most powerful black person in the country, 22:06.400 --> 22:12.000 according to Vardaman, does not possess the ability to 22:12.000 --> 22:18.000 be a responsible voter.  Now when all this kinds 22:20.667 --> 22:23.797 of--these kinds of harassments fail, 22:23.800 --> 22:25.500 if they weren't successful, if they, 22:25.500 --> 22:28.300 if they--if Vardaman couldn't whip up enough 22:28.300 --> 22:30.870 sentiment among the registrars to, 22:30.867 --> 22:32.897 like, just find ways to eliminate the black vote.  22:32.900 --> 22:35.370 If you had somebody who could pass the literacy 22:35.367 --> 22:37.597 test, who somehow could pass, 22:37.600 --> 22:41.500 you know, pay a poll tax, who could pass the bar as 22:41.500 --> 22:44.500 established by the registrar to prevent him from voting, 22:44.500 --> 22:49.900 there was always the ultimate form of what one 22:49.900 --> 22:52.100 could only politely call racial harassment, 22:52.100 --> 22:58.100 and that's lynching.  The statistics on lynching are 23:00.100 --> 23:07.900 sketchy at best.  Historians generally point to the early 23:07.900 --> 23:10.670 1880s as the first moment when reliable records of 23:10.667 --> 23:15.497 lynchings first appear.  Now it's important to recognize 23:15.500 --> 23:19.900 the timing.  I made a comment in a previous 23:19.900 --> 23:25.500 lecture about the value of a black body.  Lynching is not 23:25.500 --> 23:27.670 a phenomenon you see during an era, 23:27.667 --> 23:30.597 during--prior to the Civil War.  Yeah, 23:30.600 --> 23:35.670 there's always a sample here and there, 23:35.667 --> 23:41.197 but as a phenomenon, it's not there when it comes to 23:41.200 --> 23:43.400 slaves, because if you lynched a slave, 23:43.400 --> 23:44.900 you lynched somebody's property.  You 23:44.900 --> 23:50.600 destroyed--you owed them a lot of money.  In its own 23:50.600 --> 23:53.170 grotesque way, slavery afforded a level of 23:53.167 --> 23:55.297 protection for blacks.  It certainly wasn't there after 23:55.300 --> 23:57.600 emancipation.  Of course, that is not a defense of 23:57.600 --> 24:00.600 slavery, but that is just sort of an economic element 24:00.600 --> 24:06.170 to consider in this equation.  During the period 24:06.167 --> 24:08.767 of federal occupation of the South, 24:08.767 --> 24:14.267 there was enough military presence to mitigate 24:14.267 --> 24:20.097 these--this form of violence.  But when the 24:20.100 --> 24:22.670 North is gone, when the federal troops are gone, 24:22.667 --> 24:24.297 during the era of Redemption, 24:24.300 --> 24:26.900 this is how--one of the ways the South redeems itself.  24:31.100 --> 24:35.070 So reliable records about lynching really point to the 24:35.067 --> 24:37.067 early 1880s.  There were certain lynchings before 24:37.067 --> 24:39.897 then, but consistently, we have records pointing to the 24:39.900 --> 24:44.370 1880s.  So between 1882 and 1901, 24:44.367 --> 24:48.997 you have recorded more than a hundred lynchings a year 24:49.000 --> 24:55.370 throughout the nation.  Between 1882 and 1968, 24:55.367 --> 24:58.797 when, quote "traditional" forms of lynching 24:58.800 --> 25:00.800 essentially disappeared--although they 25:00.800 --> 25:04.000 are not gone from us, don't kid yourself about 25:04.000 --> 25:09.770 that--over four thou--excuse me over five thousand people 25:09.767 --> 25:17.197 died in recorded lynchings.  Easily three quarters of 25:17.200 --> 25:21.200 them or more were African American.  Lynching was not 25:21.200 --> 25:24.300 only--Blacks were not the only victims of lynchings.  25:24.300 --> 25:27.700 Overwhelmingly, they were the victims of lynchings.  25:27.700 --> 25:30.000 But the most important thing to know about these numbers 25:30.000 --> 25:32.600 is that these represent recorded lynchings.  25:34.700 --> 25:37.470 Historians presume quite safely that numbers were 25:37.467 --> 25:44.667 much higher.  Now lynchings were not just about 25:44.667 --> 25:48.397 stringing somebody up.  There were many different 25:48.400 --> 25:55.100 types of lynchings, and this is why it's easy for us to 25:55.100 --> 25:56.400 presume that there are, you know, 25:56.400 --> 25:58.400 ones that are very public and recorded, 25:58.400 --> 26:02.800 and those that just happened very quietly.  No one really 26:02.800 --> 26:09.070 knows about it.  So you have the most obvious, 26:09.067 --> 26:11.797 straightforward form of this kind of violence.  Someone 26:11.800 --> 26:14.670 is captured, they're strung up, 26:14.667 --> 26:18.497 and either a chair kicked out from underneath of them, 26:18.500 --> 26:20.500 a horse run off, whatever. 26:20.500 --> 26:27.370 They die by strangulation, by hanging.  But you also 26:27.367 --> 26:31.897 have lynchings, it wasn't the majority of them, 26:31.900 --> 26:34.700 but they were certainly important to understand the 26:34.700 --> 26:37.170 phenomenon of lynching, festival 26:37.167 --> 26:42.697 lynches--lynchings.  You would have lynchings that 26:42.700 --> 26:44.700 are advertised in the local paper, 26:47.900 --> 26:51.000 in advance, you know that on Saturday night, 26:51.000 --> 26:57.000 we're lynching Joe Smith in Natchez.  Enough time for 26:59.200 --> 27:02.670 rail companies to sell excursion tickets, 27:02.667 --> 27:08.797 advertised in the papers, so you could have a grotesque 27:08.800 --> 27:12.500 festival around this--this actual moment of murder.  27:15.467 --> 27:18.967 Lynchings may not have just been--weren't just getting 27:18.967 --> 27:25.097 strung up, but it could be, involve being nailed to a 27:25.100 --> 27:31.100 post or a tree and being lit on fire.  It might involve 27:39.100 --> 27:41.200 being physically--in fact, often involved being 27:41.200 --> 27:43.670 physically assaulted and mutilated while you're 27:43.667 --> 27:47.497 conscious, before you're strung up to a post to be 27:47.500 --> 27:51.800 burned, or before you're actually strung up by a 27:51.800 --> 27:56.900 tree.  When the lynching was over, 27:59.500 --> 28:01.500 especially for the festival lynchings, 28:05.000 --> 28:08.570 the abuse to the body wouldn't end.  The body 28:08.567 --> 28:09.997 might be chopped down.  As you remember from, 28:10.000 --> 28:14.300 in my second lecture, the young Irish butcher dragging 28:14.300 --> 28:18.100 a black victim through the streets of New York by his 28:18.100 --> 28:20.470 genitals, as a way of sort of declaring his 28:20.467 --> 28:23.397 citizenship, I was arguing.  Well, 28:23.400 --> 28:28.400 body parts were chopped off after lynchings: fingers, 28:28.400 --> 28:33.600 toes, genitals, ears are cut off.  They are kept as 28:33.600 --> 28:39.300 souvenirs, and they are sold as souvenirs.  Have a 28:39.300 --> 28:41.700 festival lynching in Natchez and you might find, 28:41.700 --> 28:46.300 three or four days later, in a storefront window, 28:46.300 --> 28:51.200 somebody's knee.  W. 28:51.200 --> 28:52.200 E. 28:52.200 --> 28:53.200 B. 28:53.200 --> 28:54.200 DuBois, who we'll be talking about next week, 28:54.200 --> 28:56.300 has this exact experience, of walking by a window and 28:56.300 --> 28:57.900 discovering he's looking at a body part, 28:57.900 --> 29:00.170 and realizing that a lynching he'd heard about a 29:00.167 --> 29:06.167 week earlier, that was part of that person's body.  Now 29:08.700 --> 29:13.700 I mentioned before, over five thousand people 29:13.700 --> 29:18.000 lynched.  The great majority of whom were black.  But who 29:18.000 --> 29:21.500 were the victims?--aside from being black men and 29:21.500 --> 29:27.200 white men, also some women, but very few in number, 29:27.200 --> 29:31.970 but also some women.  Overwhelmingly, 29:31.967 --> 29:35.297 the narrative says, these were black men accused of 29:35.300 --> 29:42.100 rape.  Bless you.  That was a very cute sneeze by the 29:42.100 --> 29:47.900 way.  We have black men accused of rape.  That's the 29:47.900 --> 29:49.700 received narrative, that's the received wisdom, 29:49.700 --> 29:52.100 and so the presumption is that there was some justice 29:52.100 --> 29:57.570 being exercised here; that this black man raped this 29:57.567 --> 30:00.597 white woman, whoever that might be, 30:00.600 --> 30:03.400 and therefore deserves to be murdered.  He has violated 30:03.400 --> 30:10.570 the sanctity of the South.  Much of the language of 30:10.567 --> 30:14.597 lynching during this era was on such terms; 30:14.600 --> 30:20.200 that it was a manly act to protect white womanhood by 30:20.200 --> 30:24.700 avenging the rape; that black brutes who were 30:24.700 --> 30:30.500 rapists were demonstrating how uncivilized they were.  30:30.500 --> 30:34.500 And so again, lynch mobs were being civilized.  30:34.500 --> 30:37.600 They're protecting the bastions of being civilized, 30:37.600 --> 30:42.100 of civilized behavior, and protecting their women.  30:42.100 --> 30:50.100 Manliness and civilization.  People though, 30:50.100 --> 30:51.670 as it turns out, were lynched for a variety of 30:51.667 --> 30:57.597 reasons, not just for the accusation of rape.  You can 30:57.600 --> 31:02.670 sense--you can hear some of these reasons--you can also 31:02.667 --> 31:07.697 hear rape, by the way--with a quote from a 31:07.700 --> 31:09.500 woman--woman's rights activist, 31:09.500 --> 31:15.570 a very prominent one, named Rebecca Latimer Felton. 31:15.567 --> 31:19.597 Once a slave owner--in a family of slave owners.  And 31:19.600 --> 31:26.870 actually, in a strange way, as such an advocate for 31:26.867 --> 31:31.667 women's rights, she's actually also advocating for 31:31.667 --> 31:37.997 protection of black women, which was unusual.  But she 31:38.000 --> 31:41.170 was quite convinced that black men were rapists, 31:41.167 --> 31:45.597 and they deserved their punishment.  Rebecca Felton 31:45.600 --> 31:48.800 says here, "When there is not enough religion in the 31:48.800 --> 31:53.600 pulpit to organize a crusade against sin; 31:53.600 --> 31:56.500 nor in justice in the court house--nor justice in the 31:56.500 --> 32:00.200 court house to promptly punish crime; 32:00.200 --> 32:04.070 nor manhood enough in the nation to put a sheltering 32:04.067 --> 32:06.297 arm about innocence and virtue, 32:06.300 --> 32:12.300 it is lynching--it is lynching to protect woman's 32:19.967 --> 32:27.397 dearest possession from the ravening human beasts--if it 32:27.400 --> 32:29.870 is lynching to protect woman's dearest possession 32:29.867 --> 32:31.967 from the ravening human beasts, 32:31.967 --> 32:35.767 then I say lynch.  Lynch a thousand times a week if 32:35.767 --> 32:37.767 necessary." 32:39.400 --> 32:44.200 Felton is talking about moral order: if there's not 32:44.200 --> 32:47.900 enough religion in the pulpit to organize a crusade 32:47.900 --> 32:51.600 against sin.  Talking about legal justice: if we can't 32:51.600 --> 32:54.500 have our criminals be brought to court and tried.  32:54.500 --> 32:59.100 And she's talking about manhood again: if we cannot 32:59.100 --> 33:01.100 as a nation protect our women, 33:03.000 --> 33:05.800 and if lynching is the way to do it, 33:05.800 --> 33:11.100 then by God, lynch a thousand times a week.  Now 33:11.100 --> 33:18.170 I said that lynching is the--seen as the, 33:18.167 --> 33:22.197 the answer for rapists, especially for black male 33:22.200 --> 33:29.500 rapists, and that is the received wisdom.  But 33:29.500 --> 33:32.570 really, what was it?  Ida B. 33:32.567 --> 33:35.797 Wells, black woman journalist, 33:35.800 --> 33:37.600 becomes an incredible civil rights pioneer, 33:37.600 --> 33:39.300 one of the founders of the NAACP, 33:39.300 --> 33:44.500 not yet organized.  Ida B. 33:44.500 --> 33:46.970 Wells lives in Memphis, Tennessee, 33:46.967 --> 33:52.497 and of course she hears about the scourge of the 33:52.500 --> 33:56.100 black male attacking white womanhood and raping women 33:56.100 --> 34:01.000 and children.  And then she has a horrific experience.  34:01.000 --> 34:05.270 One of her friends, a guy named Thomas Moses--Moss, 34:05.267 --> 34:08.197 opens up a store, "The People's Grocery."  He's a 34:08.200 --> 34:15.300 black man.  And he creates economic competition for a 34:15.300 --> 34:18.870 store owned by whites very close by.  And that 34:18.867 --> 34:21.367 white-owned store was the store that catered to that 34:21.367 --> 34:24.697 whole area, white and black customers.  And Thomas Moss 34:24.700 --> 34:25.770 said, "This is an opportunity. 34:25.767 --> 34:28.867 I want to open a store as well."  And the owners of 34:28.867 --> 34:30.867 the other store threatened him.  "Do not do this.  If 34:30.867 --> 34:32.967 you do this, you will pay."  And Moss says, 34:32.967 --> 34:35.097 "I'm just opening, you know, opening a store."  Well, 34:35.100 --> 34:39.500 he paid with his life.  He was lynched for opening up 34:39.500 --> 34:43.700 the store.  He did not lynch anybody.  He did not steal 34:43.700 --> 34:46.000 from anybody.  I guess he stole potential customers, 34:46.000 --> 34:52.600 I suppose, but he was lynched.  Wells writes 34:52.600 --> 34:56.900 editorials, organizes a boycott, 34:59.400 --> 35:04.000 and then in short order had to flee Memphis to save her 35:04.000 --> 35:09.600 life, because she was trying to pull back the cover of 35:09.600 --> 35:13.500 this lie about the connection between rape and 35:13.500 --> 35:17.900 lynching.  She would not return to Memphis for fear 35:17.900 --> 35:22.300 of her life until the very end of her life.  Decades go 35:22.300 --> 35:25.300 by.  She's convinced she will be killed if she steps 35:25.300 --> 35:31.600 foot back in the city.  At that moment when her friend 35:31.600 --> 35:35.300 was murdered for opening a store, 35:35.300 --> 35:36.300 Ida B. 35:36.300 --> 35:39.000 Wells sets out to demonstrate that lynching, 35:41.800 --> 35:44.500 claimed as being a way to keep uncivilized blacks 35:44.500 --> 35:50.870 down, was actually the perfect manifestation of 35:50.867 --> 35:54.067 uncivilized white male behavior, 35:54.067 --> 36:01.767 and she starts saying this publicly.  She starts 36:01.767 --> 36:06.997 writing consistently in ways where she's deemed--she's 36:07.000 --> 36:09.000 deemed a threat to Southern manhood. 36:10.867 --> 36:14.597 And because she also claimed that white women often 36:14.600 --> 36:17.700 desired the interracial dalliances where they--where 36:17.700 --> 36:23.900 they actually did exist, she had crossed the final line 36:23.900 --> 36:26.900 of taboo, that white women might actually desire black 36:26.900 --> 36:34.800 men.  She asked, "If the South is so against rape, 36:34.800 --> 36:38.170 why aren't white men lynched?"  There's a long 36:38.167 --> 36:42.497 history of certainly white slave owners raping their 36:42.500 --> 36:45.270 slaves, having children. 36:45.267 --> 36:47.897 And certainly after Emancipation, 36:47.900 --> 36:51.970 you know, rape knew no color line really.  "So why aren't 36:51.967 --> 36:52.967 white men being lynched?" 36:52.967 --> 36:59.067 she wonders.  And then she goes off to England on a 36:59.067 --> 37:02.267 speaking tour, again on this anti-lynching crusade.  And 37:02.267 --> 37:06.467 this is where she really becomes a persona non grata 37:06.467 --> 37:11.097 in the South.  Southern US at the time had a very 37:11.100 --> 37:14.200 strong connection to the notions of British 37:14.200 --> 37:17.200 civilizationist hierarchies; that the British were the 37:17.200 --> 37:19.600 height of civilized society in the world at that point 37:19.600 --> 37:22.300 in time, and the South, with their aristocratic 37:22.300 --> 37:27.270 traditions, wanted to be very much like the English 37:27.267 --> 37:29.697 model in that way.  Ida B. 37:29.700 --> 37:31.900 Wells goes over and starts talking about lynching, 37:31.900 --> 37:35.800 starts investigating.  She goes on these investigations 37:35.800 --> 37:37.100 and reports the investigations.  And it 37:37.100 --> 37:41.800 turns out, as you'll see in the reading for next week, 37:41.800 --> 37:44.500 the accusation of rape isn't even there in most of the 37:44.500 --> 37:49.970 lynchings.  So there's the popular idea that rape leads 37:49.967 --> 37:54.497 to lynching, but that's not even the case in the 37:54.500 --> 37:58.100 majority of the situations.  Theft, 37:58.100 --> 38:03.800 rude behavior, assault, certainly, 38:03.800 --> 38:07.600 all of these things lead to people being lynched.  And 38:07.600 --> 38:08.600 Ida B. 38:08.600 --> 38:12.500 Wells tells this to her audiences, 38:12.500 --> 38:14.900 women's audiences and men's audiences in England, 38:17.100 --> 38:20.200 starts talking about the way that Southern white men 38:20.200 --> 38:27.700 actually epitomize uncivilized behavior.  And 38:27.700 --> 38:30.600 you have society in England start sending investigatory 38:30.600 --> 38:34.700 groups over to the South, profoundly humiliating to 38:34.700 --> 38:40.170 Southern--Southern cities and towns where these groups 38:40.167 --> 38:43.697 might appear.  The South is enraged at Ida B. 38:43.700 --> 38:50.800 Wells and her inappropriate behavior.  Now this is an 38:50.800 --> 38:53.800 era--and I'll speak a little bit more about this next 38:53.800 --> 38:56.800 week--an era where the notion of who is the most 38:56.800 --> 38:59.600 civilized is really quite important.  It may sound 38:59.600 --> 39:03.670 kind of strange today, but this was one of the 39:03.667 --> 39:06.397 important organizing themes of cultures and societies: 39:09.400 --> 39:15.770 having good manners, acting in proper ways.  These 39:15.767 --> 39:19.397 become dividing lines between who can have access 39:19.400 --> 39:26.500 to economic opportunities and who can't.  Who's 39:26.500 --> 39:32.700 civilized?  Who's manly?  For many Southerners, 39:32.700 --> 39:36.000 it seemed like it wasn't even a question, 39:36.000 --> 39:38.300 it's beyond debate.  Ida B.  Wells says, 39:38.300 --> 39:42.600 "Not so fast."  Now we'll work through a little bit 39:42.600 --> 39:45.000 more this notion of civilization and manliness, 39:45.000 --> 39:46.900 well, in section I hope, but certainly in next week's 39:46.900 --> 39:49.800 reading.  But with all this talk about lynching and 39:49.800 --> 39:51.570 anti-lynching crusades, it was--there's really an 39:51.567 --> 39:53.567 important piece of the puzzle that's missing.  39:55.500 --> 39:57.370 Because the conversations about this can actually seem 39:57.367 --> 40:04.297 a little bit antiseptic.  Lynching was, 40:04.300 --> 40:10.300 and remains, a horribly violent and grotesque act.  40:13.500 --> 40:15.800 Ten years ago--in fact, gosh, 40:15.800 --> 40:19.870 exactly ten years ago--small gallery in New York City, 40:19.867 --> 40:24.497 the Roth Horowitz Gallery, assembles an exhibit called 40:24.500 --> 40:26.970 "Witness: Photographs of Lynchings from the 40:26.967 --> 40:31.197 Collection of James Allen," a white man who collected 40:31.200 --> 40:36.470 photographs and postcards of lynching scenes.  This is a 40:36.467 --> 40:37.797 curious phenomenon, by the way. 40:37.800 --> 40:42.800 I mean, I use "curious" in a fully complicated way.  At 40:42.800 --> 40:44.800 these festival lynchings especially, 40:44.800 --> 40:46.870 you would have photographers present who would take 40:46.867 --> 40:50.897 pictures, not for the historical record, 40:50.900 --> 40:53.100 but to sell next to the kneecaps and genitals in the 40:53.100 --> 40:56.700 storefront window.  Studio photography of lynchings.  40:56.700 --> 40:58.670 Lynchings would appear--Lynching scenes 40:58.667 --> 41:01.497 would appear on postcards and would go through the 41:01.500 --> 41:05.600 mail till the postmaster general prohibited it in the 41:05.600 --> 41:10.500 1920s, I believe.  Anyway, the collector named James 41:10.500 --> 41:14.470 Allen gathered up a fair amount of these photographs 41:14.467 --> 41:17.397 and postcards, and the owners of the Roth Horowitz 41:17.400 --> 41:18.970 Gallery's would put it together.  They're very 41:18.967 --> 41:20.697 nervous about it, but they wanted to do it, 41:20.700 --> 41:22.400 not from the standpoint of spectacle, 41:22.400 --> 41:24.170 which is what their concern was.  They didn't want to 41:24.167 --> 41:27.597 spectacularize this violence all over again, 41:27.600 --> 41:29.270 but to talk about the historical record.  These 41:29.267 --> 41:31.597 are-these are horrific images, 41:31.600 --> 41:34.900 and the fact that they were carried in the mail openly, 41:34.900 --> 41:36.200 the fact that they were sold in the windows, 41:36.200 --> 41:39.670 is an important part of our national story that we need 41:39.667 --> 41:45.097 to know.  Very controversial exhibit, 41:45.100 --> 41:47.070 very small gallery.  They moved it soon to the New 41:47.067 --> 41:48.067 York State--the New York, excuse me, 41:48.067 --> 41:51.367 the New York Historical Society in Manhattan, 41:51.367 --> 41:52.597 where there were lines around the block, 41:52.600 --> 41:55.400 who were very conflicted about this exhibit, 41:55.400 --> 41:57.500 but they still went in.  Some people said, 41:57.500 --> 42:00.270 "You can't, you can't show these things because they're 42:00.267 --> 42:02.297 so horrific."  Others said, "That's exactly why you have 42:02.300 --> 42:05.100 to show them."  Black and white on both sides of that 42:05.100 --> 42:09.170 debate, by the way.  I want to share with you some of 42:09.167 --> 42:13.197 these images.  I do not do it to spectacularize these 42:13.200 --> 42:18.900 very awful, awful images, but to help you all to bear 42:18.900 --> 42:21.100 witness in a way to the violence, 42:21.100 --> 42:24.900 and atrocities, and inhumanity--in a clinical 42:24.900 --> 42:30.470 sense, the denial of due process for black victims in 42:30.467 --> 42:32.667 the era of Southern Redemption.  Now the images 42:32.667 --> 42:34.467 you're going to see cover, chronologically, 42:34.467 --> 42:37.367 a broader period of time.  We're not just talking the 42:37.367 --> 42:41.097 1860s, 1870s, eighties here, nineties.  But, 42:41.100 --> 42:45.000 I think you will understand what's going on.  Now I'm 42:45.000 --> 42:51.100 going to show this, this slideshow.  It runs on its 42:51.100 --> 42:54.270 own, and at the end of the slideshow, 42:54.267 --> 43:00.267 the screen goes black, class is dismissed.  And I'll have 43:06.100 --> 43:08.800 side comments to where the handwriting might be a 43:08.800 --> 43:13.700 little bit illegible.  There were before and after 43:13.700 --> 43:19.700 images.  Same man you just saw, 43:21.800 --> 43:24.200 his head impaled, his burned head, 43:24.200 --> 43:26.400 impaled on the stake.  The handwriting would be put 43:26.400 --> 43:30.100 there by the photographer, so it could be identified 43:30.100 --> 43:33.970 when he sold it in the store.  Litchfield, 43:33.967 --> 43:35.297 Kentucky.  September Twenty-Six, 43:35.300 --> 43:39.900 1913, in what would appear to be sort of a town 43:39.900 --> 43:45.900 center.  Studio shots.  And you would have individuals, 43:54.067 --> 43:56.297 as you'll see, in the background.  You can see 43:56.300 --> 44:02.300 them [gestures up] directly above my hand.  This is 44:21.000 --> 44:23.070 actually a series of images you're going to see here.  44:23.067 --> 44:28.497 And you'll see the physical assault on the body prior to 44:28.500 --> 44:31.070 the actual terminal event. 44:38.600 --> 44:39.600 Body's been whipped. 44:39.600 --> 44:41.370  He's been whipped.  His back has been gouged and 44:41.367 --> 44:48.497 speared.  And one very curious thing about the 44:48.500 --> 44:53.800 studio photography is that They would cover up the 44:53.800 --> 44:59.500 victim's genitals, despite showing all of this, 44:59.500 --> 45:05.500 to be proper.  This is the same studio from another 45:12.800 --> 45:13.800 image.  Several images--several slides ago.  45:13.800 --> 45:19.800 She was lynched next to her son.  It's the back of a 45:24.500 --> 45:26.800 postcard. 45:26.800 --> 45:29.100 "The answer of the Anglo-Saxon race to black 45:29.100 --> 45:31.300 brutes who would attack the womanhood of the South."  45:35.900 --> 45:36.900 Here's the answer. 45:36.900 --> 45:42.900 That's the front of the postcard.  Another 45:55.600 --> 46:00.600 postcard.  "This is the barbecue we had last night.  46:00.600 --> 46:02.870 My picture is to the left with the cross over it. 46:02.867 --> 46:04.867 Your son, Joe." 46:17.467 --> 46:19.797   Again, for propriety's sake, 46:19.800 --> 46:25.800 a cloth around the midsection.  Festival 46:29.467 --> 46:33.467 lynching, you can--people brought dates, 46:33.467 --> 46:38.867 they brought their children.  You can tell by 46:38.867 --> 46:40.967 the apparel, this is of more recent vintage, 46:40.967 --> 46:44.597 not back in 1911 or '12.  Lynchings were of course 46:44.600 --> 46:50.600 being burned at the stake.  And they're still fairly 47:01.600 --> 47:04.800 contemporary.  47:15.267 --> 47:17.497 And class is dismissed.